FINLAND. 624 FINLAND. northern Europe from west to easl at intervals of two or three days throughout the year, and give variability lo the winds and weather. The mean annual temperature varies between the south- ern and the northern boundary from 40 F. to 34° F., ranging from 20° F. to ,8° F. in January, and from 64° F. to 62° F. in July. The extreme range of temperature is about 110° to 115° F. The prevailing winds in winter are from the south and southwest, and in summer from the north, northwest, and west. The amount of rain- fall varies from 10 inches in the northern to 25 inches in the southern part, being greatesl dur- ing August. Tlie degree of cloudiness varies from 50 per cent, at the south to 72 per cent, at the north. Geology and Mineral Resources. In it- geo- logical structure Finland is closely related to the Scandinavian Peninsula. Granite and Archaean rocks predominate, overlain by glacial materials. The granite is extensively quarried for building- stone. Bog-iron ore and copper are the only metal- lic minerals of importance. The former occurs in marshes and in the numerous lakes, while the copper-mines are located at Pikaranta on Lake Ladoga . Agriculture. Owing to the northern situation and the very limited cultivable area, as well as the primitive methods employed. Finland's home sup- ply of agricultural products falls far short of the demand. In 1896 the number of land-holdings was 117.704, of which 2694 embraced over 250 acres each, and 32,162 less than 12% acres. In other words, the proportion of large landholders is small. The influence of the landed aristocracy as a class, once considerable, has greatly waned since the law of 1863-64, which enables every citi- zen to buy tax-exempted land from the nobility. There are 70,000 tenants, partly on private and partly on Government land. The State owns about one-third of the whole area, and rents land on very advantageous terms, giving lessees every reasonable opportunity for purchase. Rent of private lands is paid mostly in labor. Though the laws governing the relations between tenant, and landlord leave much to be desired, the con- dition of tenants was perhaps better during the last century than that of the average in the countries of Europe. After Finland became a Russian duchy, its agriculture underwent a sig- nificant change. Owing to the excess of pasture over arable land, the dairying industry lias al- ways been more or less important, but prior to [850 agriculture in Finland meant chiefly the rais- ing of rye, corn, oats, barley, and potatoes. Since then dairy products have become more prominent, and the use of machinery in their production, in- troduced by the example of owners "i the larger estates and followed by the cooperative societies, is now very general. Finland exports annually aboul $6,000,000 of animal products, chiefly but ter. The live slock of the country in' 1899 bered 308,486 horse,, 1,457,423 cattle, 1,031 185 sheep, 214,206 -wine. 119,917 reindeer, and 9083 goats. In the development of its fisheries, as well as of iis live stock interests, the untry has itlj advanced. Mani i i s, Naturally Finland is nol fa Vorably situated for manufacturing, although the n i-oii- streams offer an abundant supple of power. During the period of Iss: vs. however, the number of manufacturing establishments grew from 5615 to 77S7 (39 per cent, gain) ; the number of workmen employed increased from 43,085 to 91,055 (111 per cent.) ; and tie value of products, exclusive of Hour, rose from a $22,500,000 to about $56,700,0(1(1 (150 pel cet The chief manufactured products are lumber and wooden articles (about 25 per cent.), iron prod- net-, mechanical appliance-, etc. (15 per cent.), textiles ( 12 per cent.), paper (10 per cent.), leather (7 per cent, i . By far the leading export is timber, the value of which for 1900 was about $22,780,000. Commerce and Transportation. Respi commerce Finland has been practically ii pendent of Russia. The Finnish manufacturer gets his material much cheaper than the Russian, hence has been able to compete with the latter even in the Russian market. The great difference between the prices on certain manufactures in Finland and in Russia has led to extensive smug- gling. These difficulties, however, are being rap- idly overcome under the measure instituted by the Czar in 1897. which provide- that all articles of Russian origin, except spirits, sugar, salt, to- bacco, and beer, are admitted free to Finland: all agricultural and hand-made articles from Fin- land are passed free into Russia; all products of the principal industries arc liable to differential duties; the remainder are treated in the same way as foreign products. Finland's annual imports in- creased during 1890-1900 from $28,120,000 to $54,151,000, and its exports from $18,480,000 to $39,546,000. The imports comprise chiefly food- stuffs, metal products, and textiles. About 15 per cent, of the exports consist of animal products, mostly butter, and about 00 per cent, of wood prod- ucts, including paper and pulp. The trade is mainly with Russia, Germany, Great Britain. Denmark, and Sweden, named in the order of their impor- tance. The transportation facilities are fully ade- quate to the demands of the country. Its even sur- face greatly facilitates the construction of common roads, of which there are over 30,000 miles. The numerous lakes are utilized freely for transporta- tion, and, joined by short canals, they afford continuous waterways. The first railway in Fin- land was completed in 1S62 — a line of about 88 miles between Helsingfors and Tavastehus. In 1900 there were about 180(1 miles, of which only about 170 miles were owned by private com- panies. The State lines arc well managed, and their income forms an important item in the budget. Finance and Banking. The budget of Fin land reached the sum of $17,500,000 at the end of the nineteenth century. The largest expen ditures were for public works (mainly rail roads), administration and service of the debt. worship and education, and military affairs. The income usually exceeds I he expenditures by lion, $4,000,000 to' $5,500,000. The public debt, contracted exclusively for railway construction, amounted at the beginning of 1901 to aboul $ ' 300,000, held mostly at 3 and 3 ' ... per cent, interest. Finland has a gold standard, and the unit of value i- the mark or markka, equivalenl to 19.3 cents, the same a- the French franc. The chief financial concern is the Rank of Finland, a Stale institution established in 1811. ami by mean- of which ino-i of the financial undertak ings of the State are carried out. The first savings bank was established in 182.1. in lsii8 there were all ther 17 1 avings banks, mostly pri- vate, but iinihi the supervision of the State,
