HEDONISM. 713 est good in human life. (See Ethics.) In Occi- dental speculation this view appeared very early, and was vigorously asserted by many sophists (q.v.). Aristippus (q.v.) and his school (see Cyrenaic School) made hedonism their central doctrine. Aristippus seems, at least at times, to have insisted upon the supreme value of the pleasure of the moment, and to have lost sight of the necessity, even according to liodonism, of taking account of the future. Hut while many of the sayings attributed to him have this irra- tional character, the value he set upon insight would seem to indicate that it was not his in- tention to hold up as ideal the man who com- pletely ignored all the hedonie consequences of his action. Epicurus (q.v.) laid more emphasis on the desirability of choosing 'productive' pleas- ures, to use Bentham's nomenclature; i.e. pleas- ures whose consequences are not painful. But however they difl'ered in other points, all the ancient hedonists were agreed that the pleasure of the agent was, for the agent himself, the su- preme end. A disinterested desire for some one else's good was not recognized as possible; or, if possible, it was regarded as perverse. Early modern hedonists (see Hobbes and Locke) were almost or quite as individualistic as the an- cients. But with Cumberland, Hutcheson (q.v.), and Hume (q.v.), a new phase of hedonism was introduced, viz. the theory that not the agent's greatest pleasure, but "joy in widest commonalty spread," is the supreme end of mortal action (Uni- versalistic hedonism, or Utilitarianism, q.v.). There is also another distinction between ancient and modern hedonism. It was characteristic of Greek and Roman pleasure theories that they rested on the principle that every man, or at least evei-y normal man, always seeks his own pleasure. In other words, the ancient theory rested on an alleged psychological fact, and has therefore been called psychological hedonism. Some modern authors take the same position; but the prevailing tendency in modern hedonism is to assert, not that every man always actually seeks his own pleasui-e, but that he ought to seek the greatest pleasure, whether of himself or of humanity, or of all sentient creatures. This is ethical hedonism. Psychological hedonism is controverted by well- known facts. So far is man from always seeking pleasure, that in most of his actions he has no thought of pleasure. He acts from automatic impulse, from instinct, from habit, from desire for certain objective euds, as well as occasionally from desire for pleasure. It has even been denied that there can be any desire for i)leasure, although this is, without doubt, an extreme position. The tendency among many writers at the present day is to maintain that the affections, i.e. pleasant- ness and unpleasantness, are the motives or main- springs of voluntary action, and not that pleasure and the avoidance of pain is the end of action. The difference between a motive and an end is that between an efficient and a final cause (see C.wsality), although it should be remarked that motive is often used as synonymous with end. This view that the affections are the mo- tives of actions, so far as these actions are volun- tary, is not to be confused with hedonism, which is a theorj' of ends, not of cause. Ethical hedonism is beset at the outset with HEEL-FLY. one great difficulty. It is often argued that liedonism is not practicable unless all pleasures can compare in some way with each other. Who sluiU say whether the pleasures of the table are greater or less than those of the opera? The question can be only approxiinately answered by eaeh individual according to his own tastes. And even such an answer can claim no uniform ap- plicability. At one time, e.g. when e.tremely hungry, even the most enthusiastic lover of music might ])refer beefsteak to Wagner, while just after an ei)icurean banquet the gourmand miglit temporarily prefer musie. The greatest sum of pleasures either for the agent or for the race would be a very ditlicult ideal to set before one, except in the abstract — too diflicult, perhaps, to make it the criterion of morality for the ordinary man. But the difficulty of it must not be a bar, if, on sufficient gnnnui, it can be proved that man ought to seek the greatest pleasure eitliiT of himself or of others. What obligation means and how it relates itself to pleasures and desires is discussed elsewhere. (See Ethics.) After that discussion it may be said that hedonism has no ."cientifie basis. Consult the authorities referred to under Utii.itakianism : Ethics. HfeDOTJIN, a'dwaN', Edmond (1820-89). A French painter, born at Boulogne-sur-JIer. He studied under Delaroehe and Nanteuil, and first attracted attention by his "Woodcutters of the Pyrenees," exhibited in 1844. His best works are scenes of Spanish peasant life. He also pro- duced some decorative paintings for the foyer of the Theatre Francais in Paris. One of his landscapes is "Gleaners Overtaken by Storm" (18S7), in the Luxembourg. In engraving, Ilr- douin's work for an edition of Moli6re (1881-80) may lie noted. HEDOUVILLE, a'doo'vel', Gabriel Marie JcsEPH Theodore. Count d' (1755-1825). A French general and diplomat, born at Laon, and educated at La Fl&che and at the Military School. In 1797 he was made Governor of Santo Domingo, but was imable to cope with Toussaint L'Ouver- ture, and returned to France two years after- wards. In 1801 he was made Minister to Russia, in 1805 went on diplomatic missions in Italy, and, with Josephine, to Strassburg and Munich. After the peace with .ustria he was Plenipo- tentiarj' at Frankfort, but in 1814 voted for the overthrow of the Emi)ire. He was made count '^r. 1818, and was appointed to the commission on Ihe disputes between France and the Grand Duchy of ^^'arsaw. HEDWIG, hed'vlK (1174-1243). The patron saint of Silesia, a daughter of Berthold IV. of Meran. In her twelfth year she was married to Duke Henry I. of Silesia, who died in 1238. Slie entered a Cistercian cloister which she had found- ed near Breslau, and died there. HEDWIG, or JADWIGA, yad-ve'gA (1371- 99). . (,)ueon of Poland, daughter of Louis the Great of Poland and Hungarv. .fter his death (1382) the Poles put her on the throne. In 138G she married .Jagellon of Lithuania, who embraced Roman Christianity and became known as Wladi- slaw (Ladislas). HEEL-FLY. local name in the Southern and Western States for the ox botfly {Hypo- derma lineata), derived from the fact that the
