JAPAN. 125 JAPAN. world is indebted for its still very imperfect knowledge of the geologj' of Japan. The backbone of the country consists of meta- niorphic rocks — gneiss, crystalline schists, serpen- tine, and marble — which are discovered every- where in great masses, but are best studied in Shikoku. Overlying these are thick Paleozoic strata — probably of the Silurian or Devonian formation — consisting of clay-slate, graywaeke, quartzite, and limestone. The Carboniferous for- mation is represented by limestone, and by the coal-measures of Yezo. The Permian seems to be entirely unrepresented in Yezo, but Rein seems to have found indications of the occurrence of the lower New Red Sandstones on the main island. Mesozoic strata of the Jurassic formation exist in Kaga, while the Cretaceous formation is ex- emplified by the coal-measures of Takashima. by the gray-white granular and micaceous sand- stones of that vicinity, and in Yezo by certain Cretaceous clays. Tertiary and Post-Tertiary conglomerates, sandstone, clay-slate, peat, strati- fied volcanic tufl's rich in coal, lignite, and fossil plants, fringe the country in many places. The oldest eruptions were of granite, which is very widespread. .Japan is not specially rich in minerals, con- trari' to the %-iews expressed by early geologists. Iron and coal are the most plentiful: next come copper and antimony, gold, silver, lead, tin, zinc, graphite, and petroleum. The Japanese seem to have been entirely unacquainted with the useful or even the precious metals until after contact with the Chinese and the incoming of the arts, sciences, letters, and religion from China. Silver was first discovered and worked in the year 674, copper in G98, and ten years later, in imitation of the Chinese 'cash.' a copper coinage was in- troduced, a fact commemorated in the name of the reign in which this occurred — Wa-do ('Japa- nese Copper") (708-714) J Gold was discovered in 749. The lodestone had become known somewhat earlier — in 713. Coal is found in many places, from Formosa to Yezo. The best is that of Takashima (where the seams are 14 feet thick and extend under the sea ) . Karatsu, Miike, and other places in the island of Kiushiu; at Kelung (q.v. ) in Formosa; and at Poronai in Y'ezo. In 1899 the output (ex- clusive of that of Formosa) was 6,721,798 tons. As already indicated, most of it belongs to the Tertiary formations. Iron is found chiefly as magnetic iron ore. the chief ore of the .Japanese iron industry, and, as iron-sand, exists in nearly all the provinces. In 1899 the production amounted to 50,930..55.3 pounds. Copper seems to have been plentiful from the very first. It is said that from 1609 to 1858 no less than 533,- 332,000 pounds were exported by the Dutch. The product in 1899 amounted to 53.601,019 pounds. Three silver ores are found, besides galena. The first discovers' of silver was on the island of Tsu- shima, half-way between Kiushiu and Korea. It is now worked in many places in Shikoku, and in Hondo from Settsu to Mutsu in the north. In 1899 the product amounted to 1,808,944 ounces. Gold exists chiefly ( 1 ) in the alluvial sands and gravels of Osumi, in Kiushiu. and at several places in Yezo ; and ( '2 ) in auriferous quartz in Satsuma, Koshin. Rikuchiu in Hondo, and at . Aikawa. on the island of Sado, in the Sea of Japan. In 1889 the total product was 53.951 ounces. Several gold-mines are also worked near Kelung, in Formosa. The other mineral products are, per annum: Lead, 1023 tons; antimony, 1097 tons; tin, 63 tons: manganese, 10,561 tons; ar- senic, 34.770 pounds: mercurv, 7140 pounds: sul- phur, 22,603,980 pounds; iron pyrites, 18,493.078 pounds; and graphite, 520 tons. The sulphur supply is practically inexhaustible. Petroleum is obtained at Xagaoka and many other places, but the output is far from being enough to supply the needs of the country. In 1899 it amounted to 18,844,239 gallons. It is interesting to note that petroleum was discovered by the Japanese in the Province of Etchigo as early as 668. ilarble, granite, and other building-stones exist in diflerent parts of the country, but are at present little used in building. FiSHEniES. The Japanese depend on the farmer and the fisherman for their food-supplies. The former provides them with the indispensable rice, and the latter with the fish which invariably goes with it. The waters, both fresh and salt, teem with fish of every kind, from the whitebait to the bonito and the sturgeon. There is probably no country in the world where the markets are supplied with a greater abundance or variety. The mackerel family is perhaps the largest, both in species and catch: the tai, or golden bream, is perhaps the most prized. The salmon abounds, especially in Yezo, where there are many salmon- curing establishments. The flounder, sole, turbot, trout, haddock, perch, pike, shad, and halibut are all plentiful, and the taking of them gives em- ployment to tens of thousands of men. In 1899 the total catch of fresh fish was valued at .$20,- 023,911. There are several establishments in different parts of the country for the hatching and rearing of fish, each with a capacity of 30,000. Various kinds of fi.sh oil are made. On the coasts of Yezo immense numbers of a kind of herring or sardine are caught, and the residue, after expressing the oil. is packed and shipped south to the other islands as manure. The value of the salt fish, fish-oil, seaweed, etc.. in 1899 was nearly .$16,000,000. The salt used in fish-curing and in .Japan generally is made by evaporating sea-water and then leaching and boiling. The area of these beds in 1899 was 18,718 acres, and the value of the salt produced was .$3,771,471. AfiRiccLTURE. In Japan, as in China, the farming class has always held an honorable posi- tion in the community, ranking next after the barons and their military retainers, who were the scholars of the country, and taking precedence of the mechanic and the merchant. Nearly half the population is directly engaged in agriculture. The soil is largely the product of old shales, granite and trachrtic eruptions decomposed by the actiou of the weather, and is not naturally fertile. It is only by the most careful manuring that it can be made productive, a result to which al.so the warmth and moisture of the climate con- tribute largely. As already indicated, the greater portion of the country is occupied by mountains, largely covered with forests or tall, rank grass, leaving only certain narrow river stretches and plateaus, and more or less circumscribed plains for cultivation. It is therefore not surprising to learn from official statistics that the portion devoted to agriculture is only 12 per cent, of the total area of the country. The forests cover 20,- 062 square miles, and the hara. or prairie. 2895 square miles. Rice (of which there are 217 vari- eties) is the staple food of the people, and is
