JEWS. 220 JEWS. After the Exile, however, a modified script, pro- duced at Talniyra and known as the square or 'Assyrian' script ('Assyrian" boinj; used in the sense of Syrian), gradually displaced the older Phtenician cliaracters. For the ^'raniniatical structure and general cliaraclorisliis of the Hebrew language, see the article Sesiitic Lan- guages. A grammatical treatment of the Hebrew first commenced after the langiuige ceased to be spoken by the people. The vocalization and accentuation of the text originated in the sixth and sevcndi centuries after the ( inie of Christ. ( See JIasoka. ) The .Tews made the first attempt at a system of grammar about the dawn of the tenth century, after the example of the Arabians, and originally even in the Arat)ic language. Ral)l)is Saadia Gaon (Saadia ben .losej)!!, died 042), Jcluuia Hayyuj (c.l030), .Tonah (Ibn Janacb, c.1030), Abraham ben Ezra (died HOT), and David Kim- chi (died lij:j.5) were the first granunarians. The dictionary of the last was long considered the best. The founder of the study of Hebrew among Christians was .Tohann Rciichlin (died 1.522), who. however, like the grammarians of the next age, Buxtorf and others, strictly adhered to Jew- ish tradition and method. A new era began when the study of other members of the Semitic family of languages, Syriac, Arabic, and Ethiopic. en- larged the field of view. Albert SchuUcns ( died 1750) andNikolausWilhelmSchrikler (died 1798) are noteworthy in this work. The development of Assyriological research during the nineteenth cen- tury has added much to our knowledge of the rela- tion of .Hebrew to the other Semitic dialects. Wilhelm Gesenius (died 1S42) was by far the greatest of Hebraists up to his time. His Hcbiaische (Irammatik (Ilalle. 181.3; 27th ed. by Kautzsch, Leipzig. 1002; "several Englishtrans- lations, including one by the Americans ilitchell and Price, 2d ed- from the 25th German edition, Boston, 1804). Thesaurus Linr/iice Hehraiccc (Leipzig, 1820-42), and -shorter Echruisches ttnd chaldiiisclics lUnubrorliThuch (2 vols., Leipzig, 1810-12; 13th ed. by Buhl. ISOO; English transla- tions by Tregelles, Robinson, and others) were not only better than any previously produced, hut are still those in most general use. Since Gese- nius noteworthy grammars have been written by Ewald (Leipzig, 1827), Olshausen (Brunswick, 1861), Stade (Leipzig, 1870), and Ivinig (Leip- zig. 1881-07), and dictionaries by Fiirst (Leipzig, 1837-40). and Siegfried and Stade (Leipzig, 1873). The grammatical and lexicographical re- searches of Lagarde (died 1801) and Barth de- serve special mention. A Hebrew-English dic- tionary by Francis Broflii and others, giving the results of (he latest scholarship and research, is in course of publication (Boston. 1801 sqq.). LiTERATTiiE. Only a scanty portion of ancient Hebrew literature has come down to the present day. The Tell el-.-marna tablets show that writ- ing on clay was known in Palestine as early as B.C. 1400. Writing among the Hebrews, however, probably did not begin before n.c, 1000. although the written records embody smiie poetic produc- tions that belong to an earlier ace. The bulk of the remains of ancient Hebrew literature is to be found in the Old Testament : and since the latest portions of the Old Testament (e.g. the Book of Daniel) bring us down to the Maccahean age. it embraces a period of about 000 years. To the Old Testament, however, must be added as properly belonging to Hebrew literature various books of the apocryphal literature, such as the Book of Ecclesiasticus, written by .Jesus Sirach about n.c. ISO, of which more than half of the originals have recently been recovered, and others of which the originals are lost. With reference to form and contents this Hebrew literature may lie divided into poetry (lyric, epic, didactic, and religious), hisl<iry (in- cluding legends, traditions, and myths in his- torical garb), legal codes, religious discourses, and romances (including apocalyptic works) , and ]ihilosophical disquisitions. The oldest specimens of Hebrew literature are found in the poetical ])roductions, e.g. the Song of Deborah (.ludgcsv. ), the fable of .lotham (.Judges ix. 7 s(|q,), the elegy on Saul and .Jonathan (11. Sam. i. 17 sqq.). The earliest collections of traditions and historical reminiscences date from the tenth century, em- liodicd in more systematic productions in the ninth century, (See Elohist and Yaiiwist. ) The compilation of legal codes begins in the ninth century (the Book of the Covenant. Exodus xxi.- xxiii.) and extends to about B.C. 500 (the Priestly Code). The discourses of the prophets likewise date back to the eighth century, while the latest sections lielong to the third century. Romances belong to the post-exilic period exclu- sively, and to fliis period also belongs the great body of the religious poetry (Psalms), as well as the philosophical productions (Ecclesiastes and Job). For details see the articles on the separate books of the Old Testament; also Bini.E, Pexta- TEi'cn, Proi'iiecy, etc. It will thus be seen that the ancient Hebrew literature bridges the transition from the old Hebrew religion to .Judaism in the proper sense of the term. The line between Hebrew and .Jew- ish literature is not sharply drawn. Much that is included in the Old Testament belongs to .Jewish literature; and those portions which are subse- quent to the formal acceptance of the Priestly Code (B.C. 444) may he said to belong to the first period of .Jewish literature. This period ds char- acterized Iiy what may be called the rabbinic spirit. Guided by Ezra, the intellect of the nation began to exhibit surpassing reverence for the Pen- tateuch and the projihets. Expositions and addi- tions to the earlier history {midrashim) , as well as Greek translations, were executed. To this period also, if to any. must belong the uncertain performances of the Great .Synagogue (q.v.). The doctors of whom the Great Synagogtie is said to have consisted were called sopherim ('scribes'), and the Aramean became the popular dialect of Palestine. Eight subsequent periods of .Jewish literature may be distinguished. The seroiid period extends from B.C. 143 to a.d. 135. The Midrnsh (q-v.), or the inquiry into the meaning of the sacred writings, was divided into Hnlacha and fJafi- finda : the former considered the improvement of the law, with a view to practical results; the latter, the essence of the religious and historical interpretations. .^t first, both were the oral deliverances of the sopherim. but gradually writ- ten memorials made their appearance. The public interpretation of the Scripture in schools and synagogues, the independence of the Sanhe- drin. the strife of sects, and the influences of Alexandrian culture, furthered this development. To this period also belong various Greek versions, but not, as is still erroneously supposed by some,
