MAGIC. 676 MAGIC. covery, afterwards became a popular talismanic figure, persisting thruughout the Middle Ages. Magic squares (q.v.) were similarly used. From very ancient times archaic or foreign names of deities were thought to confer power over the.se deities upon the possessor of them — probably a persistence of common superstition of savages that a stranger's knowledge of their own names will subject them to his power. Such names were frequent in incantations and often placed upon charms. Other words were chosen for mys- tical reasons, as Abraxas. Abracadabra (qq.v. ). The classic peoples added little that was orig- inal to the vast body of Oriental magic which, for the most part, they readily assimilated. To be sure, classical polj-theism was from the be- ginning permeated with magical rites and prac- tices, but the mythological and intellectual ele- ment was relatively stronger than in the East; their polytheism was a hero worship rather than a demon or spirit worship. Xevertheless in Greece many magical cults were adopted from Asia and one at least — the cult of Hecate — appears to have been native, and to have left us as its legacy our many superstitions in connection with the moon, ■«'hich that goddess impersonated as patroness of sorcerers. The Greeks, too, in their myths em- phasized forms of enchantment resulting in metamorphosis — for example, Circe — thus giv- ing to the art an imaginative prestige quite for- eign to the more primitive superstitions of the East. Again, even where it could not overthrow magical belief. Western philosophy raised this belief to something resembling scientific form. Thus the semi-mystical metaphysic of the Pyth- agoreans, who found the essential nature of all things in numerical relations, which. lending it- self readily to magical interpretations, resulted in a magic which seemed to those who held it only an enlightened philosophy of nature, and doubtless was an advance over current mytho- logical conceptions. The science of astrology (q.v.), which, both Egj'ptians and Chalda-ans had elaborated, was accompanied by no small real knowledge of the stars, and it was further ration- alized by a physical theory of elements. These elements or 'humors' were four: two creative and nourishing, heat and moisture: and two unhealthy and destructive, cold and dryness. The different planets were supposed to dominate one or more of these elements and through these to produce their effects. Granting the premises, as- trology was thus a true science. Later the Xeo- Platonists and the Gnostics developed elaborate systems of magic, throughout in accord with care- fully wrought theories of the universe. Rome, though from the earliest time possess- ing characteristic forms of divination and official diviners or augurs to foretell public dooms, added even less than Greece to the positive develop- ment of magic. There were many dark practices developed in the local Italian cults, conjuration of lemurcs. exorcism of larvip. and other demono- logical superstitions, to which without question the older Etruscan civilization contributed nuich : but the indigenous magic of Italy was of little importance compared with the assimilation of for- eign beliefs in Imperial Rome. The city became the resort of magicians of every type and from every land, absorbing that multiplicity of superstitions which was to form a part of Western Europe's heritage of Roman civilization. It is true that in both Greece and Rome a few of the more en- lightened minds rejected magic as pernicious non- sense, and in this, as in a certain amount of prescriptive legislation, is evinced the intellectual advance of the classic peoples; but the enlighten- ment signified nothing for the mass of the people nor for the social organization. Magic was an integral part of their paganism and could not be eliminated until the pagan order should come to an end. To understand the attitude of Christianity toward magic and its long .struggle against magic arts, it is necessary to bear in mind the funda- mental distinction between good and bad magic. Even the most primitive savages discriminate helpful and harmful magic, though with them the distinction is not in the kind of magic per sc, but in its use. Thu.s, bad magic or 'medicine' is that which bewitches or injures one's .self; if it in- jures one's enemies it is good. Similarly, the fetish which protects one from the machinations of an enemy is good, though if he use the like means for his own defense it is bad. This dis- tinction naturally gave rise to the more abstract theory that magic capable of inflicting injury is controlled by malevolent spirits, while magic which protects or heals is controlled by benefi- cent spirits. It was under the latter form that the Oriental and pagan beliefs of antiquity were organized, and in Egypt as well as in Greece and Rome, even though the State itself sanctioned the rites of beneficent magic, the u.se of malevolent magie (the aid of demons) was early proscribed by law. To the Christian Fathers, however, all pagan deities were conceived as demons (and few of them doubted the power of these demons ) , and hence the overthrow of paganism lo"ically involved the destruction of all magie. By the very attitude of Christianity it all became malevolent magic — the black art. Unfortunately, magical beliefs were too thor- oughly ingrained in human nature to be readily eradicated, and persisting in spite of the opposi- tion of the Christian religion during the Middle Ages, it remained as a confused element in much of the mediieval learning. There appear to be three predominant strains in the mediaeval devel- opment. In its results the most important is that which gave rise to modern science. As already indicated, scientific elements were pres- ent in ancient magic, most notably in astrology and healing magic, which formed true if imperfect sciences. In mediaeval times alchemy (q.v.) be- came even more important : and, indeed, the chief business of the media'val magician was to find the secret of the 'philosopher's .stone,' which should transmute base metals into gold, and the elixir of life, which should bestow eternal youth. It also embodied certain forms of phy- sical experimentation, notably by Alhertus: and eventually gave rise to the modern white or nat- ural magic. See Legerdemain. The black magic of mediaeval times derived its main source from that peculiarity of Oriental magic which laid stress upon the use of esoteric names of deities. This is manifestly a survival of the savage superstition which impels the sub- stitution of nicknames for real names; but it is a superstition augmenting with the age of tradi- tions and is possible in extreme form only to peoples who build upon abandoned cultures. For example, the Assyrians attached importance to the recitation of Accadian incantations or their inscription in Accadian characters; and very i
