NATIONAL EDUCATION. 263 NATIONAL EDUCATION. I gaiiiziitioii in llii' afiuU'inios in ISOli, have been thrown soniuwlial on their own n'sonrees and tliuse of their localitius. Thu Stale no longer equips laboratories or libraries, nor maintains new courses, nor builds new buildings. The fourses of stud}- in the primary schools arc in general determined by State laws. In addi- tion, the ilinistcr of Public Instruction, in con- sultation with the Superior Council, determines the programmes of instruction even in details of considerable minuteness, and also rules for the conduct of the schools. In geiu'ral, the pri- mary schools give instruction in moral and civic matters, reading, -writing, arithmetic (with sim- ple geometry), history and geography (particu- larly of France), elementary science, drawing, .singing, manual work (including needle-work for girls), gymnastic exercises, and for boys, military drill. The superior primary schools have, in addition, algebra and geometry, biological and physical sciences, with applications to agricul- ture, industries, and hygiene. ])olitical economy, the French language and literature, general his- tory, industrial and connnerci.al geography, iron and wood work for boys, and cutting and fitting for girls. One foreign language also is taught. The apprentice, commercial, and technical schools emphasize, of course, w-ork preparing for special vocations. The courses of .study for the secondary schools are laid down by law, and ^vere modified in 1890 and 1891 in order to make them conform move completely with modern demands. They were again modified in 1901 and 1902. The entire course occupies eleven years. Four years are spent in the piimai-y department and pupils can take this work in the free primary schools. They will, how-ever, be ynder the disad- vantage of not taking a course of three years in a modern language. The secondary school pro])er has a eoiu-se of seven years, divided into two parts. During the first four years the work may be in either of two courses, in one of which Latin is obligator}' and Greek optional, and in the other neither is taken. For the last three years there are four courses presented for choice. These courses emphasize respective]}- Latin-Greek, Latin-modern languages, Latin-science, and science-modern languages. During the last year of the course options in either philosophy or mathematics are offered. The progranmies in all the secondary schools of France are rigidly laid down by statutes and regulations of the central Department of Educa- tion, and general uniformity exists. The system of inspection in France comes in to insure this uniformity in curriculum and methods. It extends to sanitary conditions as well as to instruction, although such inspection is in the hands of the regular medical inspectors of the localities. Uniformity of results is brought about by a regular system of examina- tions carried on by outside authorities. An ex- amination for a certificate of primary studies may be given to pupils at the age of eleven, and those ]iassing are exempt from further compul- sory attendance. It is carried on in the cantons by examiners appointed by the rectors of the acndemies. A special departmental commission holds yearly an examination for certificates in hiL'her primary studies. The secondary schools also have their final examinations for degrees conducted by outside examiners. Indeed, as the primary schools arc the product of the central republican governments of France, so the lycfies are pari of the imperial .scheme of education de- vised by Napoleon, and both therefore are eliur- acterized by llie system, uniformity, and depend- ence on central authority that their origin would insure. Private schools in France require the sanction of the State, but can receive no support from pub- lic funds. The mayor or academic inspector can ojjpose them in the interests of hygiene, morals, or public order. They are free in regard to their programmes and methods, but their teachers must liave received the eertifieate of capacity. For the most part, they have been under the control of religious (.Irders or congregations, and their large attendance w-as due to the demand for more religious instruction on the part of some classes. These congregations, however, were alleged to be in many cases hostile to the Republic. The Catlio- lic Orders w-ere particularly aimed at in this charge. The Ministry of Waldeck-Rousseau at- tacked their independence in the 'law- of associa- tions' that became a law- July 1, 1901. By it all congregations are required to obtain official authorization in order to get legal recognition as such. All unauthorized congregations are absolutely forbidden to give instruction. By this means a careful scrutiny of the conduct of the affairs of such bodies is made pos- sible, and the character of their insti-uction inspected. The law contemplates the su])pression of all congregations that shall resist such scrutiny. During the year 1901-02 the Min- istr}' presided over by Premier Combes compelled many thousands of unauthorized clerical schools to elo.se their doors. In 190.3 supplementary legislation to the Association Bill resulted in practically closing all the clerical schools both authorized and unauthorized. The universities of France are discussed more at length under Uxn-ERsiTY. GBEAT BRITAIN. The foundation of the present system is the Elementary Education Act of 1870. It declared that each district where sufficient facilities for elementary instruction were not in existence should provide them. Schools requiring denomi-. national instruction or charging more than nine- pence a week for tuition were not regarded as providing sufficient meiins for this purpose. The Education Department w-as required to make a statement of w-hat was in each case demanded. In ease voluntary provision to meet these de- mands was not fortlicomiiig. a school board w^as to be elected in the district, which was to pro- vide, to maintain, and to keep efficient the requisite elementary schools. Children attend- ing board schools w-ere to pay a weekly fee de- termined by the board, w-ith the consent of the dejiartment, but this was to be omitted where parents w-ere regarded as imable to pay. School boards w-ere permitted to make ])rovision for the compulsory attendance of children between five and thirteen years of age. who were not else- where receiving efficient instruction, unless these children had attained the re(|uisite standard of scholarship, or were exempt under the Factory Acts. The board schools w-ere to give no de- nominational instruction. The funds for the sup- port of elementary schools were to be at the dis- posal of the boards, and w-ere to be derived from Parliamentary grants, loans, fees, and local rates.
