Germany. The news sheets of the sixteenth century led to the newspapers that began to appear just after 1600. Frankfort-on-Main was among the first with the Frankfurter Journal (1615) and the Frankfurter Oberpostamtszeitung (1616), which, as the Frankfurter Postzeitung, lived till 1866. Periodical papers were soon established in other towns, as Strassburg, Nuremberg, Hildesheim, Augsburg, Munich, Hamburg, and Leipzig (1660). The Hamburgischer Correspondent (1714), still existing, is famed as being the first to have a regular foreign correspondent, a French refugee living in England (1725-35). The Allgemeine Zeitung, started at Augsburg in 1798 and published since 1883 at Munich, from the first a weighty political organ, now ranks among the foremost papers of Germany. The press in Germany was long under severe restrictions. The press laws of Germany are in theory liberal. In practice, however, by a rigid application of the law in regard to lèse-majesté, the courts have come to construe almost any criticism of current administration as an insult to the constituted authorities. Even a comment on the frequency of railroad accidents has been visited with court proceedings, and the editor of Kladderadatsch was imprisoned for two months for a cartoon which represented a group of great soldiers of the past reading the Emperor's speech to his guard, declaring that it was necessary to be a good Christian in order to be a good soldier. Berlin has over twenty-five dailies, among which are the Vossische Zeitung; the Norddeutsche Allgemeine Zeitung; the Neue Preussische Zeitung; National-Zeitung; the Tagliche Rundschau; Germania; and the Volkszeitung. The Cologne Gazette is noted for its foreign news. From all the great cities of Germany issue many weeklies, some of which are illustrated. The leading comic periodicals are Fliegende Blätter and Jugend, Munich, and Kladderadatsch, Berlin.
Austria-Hungary took an active part in the early history of journalism and has kept abreast with modern methods. Of the Vienna dailies, numbering about fifteen, the most important are the Neue Freie Presse; Neues Wiener Tageblatt; Wiener Allgemeine Zeitung; Deutsche Zeitung; the semi-official Fremdenblatt; and the official Wiener Zeitung, with its semi-official evening edition, Wiener Abendpost. Budapest has twenty-seven dailies, of which Pesti Napló (Pest Daily), Egyetértés (Union), and Pesti Hirlap (Pest Gazette) are the most prominent in Hungarian, and the Pester Lloyd and Neuer Pester Journal in German. Among the provincial papers the foremost in German are the Bohemia, in Prague; the Grazer Tagespost, the Triester Zeitung; in Czech, the Národni Listy (National News), in Prague; in Polish, the Czas (Times), in Cracow; and in Italian, the Independente, in Triest. As in France, considerable space is given by the press of Germany and Austria to literary reviews and short stories.
Scandinavia. The earliest Swedish paper seems to have been the Ordinarie Post-Tidende of Stockholm (1643-80). A little later came the Svensk Mercurius (1675-83) and the Relationes Curiosæ in Latin (1682-1701). In the eighteenth century were established two French papers: the Gazette Française (1742) and the Mercure de Suède (1772). The first political paper of importance in Sweden was the Argus, founded by Johannsen (1820). Ten years later were established the Fäderneslandet, the organ of the Royalists, and the Aftonbladet, the organ of the Reformers, now the leading dailies of Stockholm. The first Norwegian newspapers were the Christiania Intelligentssedler (1763) and the Adressecontors Efterretninger (Bergen, 1765). Christiania now has five and Bergen three dailies. In both Norway and Sweden semi-weeklies and tri-weeklies are common. The press of Denmark dates from the Danske Mercurius (1666). Down to 1830 the papers of Denmark were made up mostly of extracts from foreign journals; and those outside of Copenhagen are still very poor. Copenhagen now has thirteen dailies, morning and evening, of which the oldest is the Berlingske Tidende (1749). The Aftenposten enjoys the largest circulation. At Reikjavik in Iceland are published two small journals.
Italy. As has already been mentioned, Italy with her ancient Acta Diurna, and the Venetian gazettes of the sixteenth century, was the original home of the newspaper. The succeeding sheets fell into disfavor with the popes and were denounced in a bull issued by Gregory XIII. The Diario di Roma (1716) was the leading Italian newspaper for more than a century. Next followed the existing Gazzetta di Napoli. Up to 1848 the newspapers of Italy, subject to strict censorship, were small and politically insignificant. Press laws then became liberal, and as a result newspapers sprang up rapidly. Among the ten Roman dailies may be cited the Opinione (established at Turin in 1847 and afterwards removed to Rome); Diritto; Riforma; Fanfulla; and the Voce della Verità (in the interest of the Pope). Florence issues the Corriere Italiano and two other dailies; Genoa, the Caffaro and the Corriere Mercantile; Milan, six dailies, among them the influential Perseveranza; Turin, five; Venice, four; and Naples, six. There are also several illustrated and humorous weeklies.
The Spanish Peninsula. Though there were earlier sheets published at irregular intervals, the first Spanish newspaper seems to date only from the eighteenth century. Even for some time after 1800 Madrid had only its Diario. Indeed, the press in Spain had a hard career till the Revolution of 1854. Dailies in all the chief cities are now numerous. Madrid has about twenty, among which are the Imparcial and the Correspondencia de España. Among the Madrid illustrated weeklies are the Correspondencia Illustrada and the Illustracion Española y Americana. From the American standpoint, the news in Spanish papers is meagre. This is also true of the numerous dailies of Lisbon.
Russia. The earliest newspapers of Russia were issued under the direction of Peter the Great, first at Moscow and then at Saint Petersburg, to report the progress of the war with Sweden. The first gazette, the Vedomosti, appeared in Moscow in 1702. The issue of 1703, preserved in the Imperial Library at Saint Petersburg, was reprinted in 1855. Political journalism, however, has never been permitted in Russia except in defense of the Government policy. The flourishing period of the press has been at the time of national crises, as the French invasion of 1812, the Polish insurrection of 1830, and the Crimean War. The official organ is the Journal de Saint Pétersbourg. The Novoe Vremya (New Times), the Novosti (a news and
