PE.UDENTIUS. 486 PRUNING. alreadj- begun by Ambrose, against the proposed restoration of the altar of Victory to the senate house. Two of Prudentius's poems are distinctly theological, the Uamurtigenia, on the origin of evil, and the Apotheosis, a defense of the doctrine of Christ's divinity. In both these works the in- fluence of Tcrtullian is unmistakable. Consult: Glover, Life and Letters in. the I'^ourlh Century {Cambridge, 1901); Ebert. Geschichte der Lit- teralur des Mittclaltcrs (2d ed., Leipzig, 1S89) ; Boissier, La fin dm paganistne (3d ed., Paris, 1898) ; Thackeray, Translations from Pruden- tiiis (London. LS'.IO). PBTJD'HOMMES, pn.i'dum' (Fr., discreet men). Council of. ilunicipal tribunals, which existed first in the iliddle Ages at JIarseilles, Lyons, and elsewhere in France, exercising an equitable jurisdiction as arbiters t>t trade dis- putes. Similar tribunals, under the same name, wei'e re-introduced by Napoleon I. in 1800. and were found to be of great practical utility. They were instituted at first in favor of the silk trade and other trades immediately connected with it. Under the [iresent French Republic the system has been continued, the Conseils des Prud'honnnes being citizens elected by the people irrespective of their connection with capital or labor. In their original form thej' somewhat resembled the boards of arbitration established in several of the United States, whose purpose it is to cause a speedy and just settlement of labor disputes. PRUD'HON, pru'dO.V, Pierre (1758-182.3). A French historical and genre painter, born in Cluny. His father was a stone-cutter, and he received his first instruction from the monks of the Abbey of Cluny. Afterwards he stud- ied under Desvoges at Dijon. An unfortunate marriage handicapped the jiainter in his youth. He worked in Paris with Wille, the engraver, and in 1783 won the Prix de Rome. In 1789 he returned to Paris, and at first supported himself by working for the booksellers, but finally at- tracted the attention of Xa])oleon, who gave him lodging in the Sorbonne. Under the influence of his friend Constance ilayer, a pupil of Greuze, he painted his l)est pictures, such as the portrait of Josephine (Louvre) and "Crime Pursued by Vengeance and .Justice" (1808. Louvre), for which he received the Legion of Honor. In ISll he was appointed drawing master to the Empress Maria Louisa, and in 181G he was elected to the Institute. After the death, by suicide, of Mile. Mayer, in 1821, Prud'hon completed his picture "The Unfortunate Family" ( Louvre ) , and paint- ed a few religious pieces, including "Crucifixion" ( Louvre) . Though he nearly always painted classi- cal subjects, he was one of the principal precur- sors of Romantjcism. In Italy he had studied Leonardo, and his women have something of the subtlety of this master. The delicacy of his coloring, the correctness of his drawing, and the simplicity of his conception, make him one of the most pleasing of the successors of David. Con- sult: Clement, Prud'hon, sa vie, ses ocuvres et sa correspondance (Paris, 1868 and 1872) ; De Gon- court. L'art au XVIILme siecle (Paris, 1875). PRUNE (Lat. prutium. plum, primus, plum- tree, from Gk. irpovvov, prounon, Trpovfivov, proum- non, plum, irpoOxos, proiinos. irpoiiivrj, proumnS, plum tree). Any variety of plum which can be successfully cured without removing the pit. Only those varieties which have a large propor- tion of solids, and sugar in particular, are con- sidered good prunes. The prune industry was started in the Eastern United States in 1854, but failed because the climatic conditions were not favorable for the production of the desired quali- ties. About 1863 the industry started in Cali- fornia and grew rapidly. In 1880 the output had reached 200.000 ]iounds annually, and in 1900, 100,000,000 pounds, tlius developing in 30 years an industry with an annual output greater than France, hitherto the chief prune-producing nation of the world. Oregon, Washington, and Idaho also grow good prunes, as do also Servia, Germany, Spain, Australia, and South Africa. The prune may be cured in three ways. ( 1 ) Sun-drying, the common and most economical way where climatic conditions will admit it. This is largely practiced in California, as well as in the European countries. The prunes are not picked until ready to fall, when they are gath- ered, graded, and dipped in hot lye or nni through a pricking machine, after which they are spread on boards or wire-bottomed frames and put out to dry, an operation which takes from 8 to 12 days, depending upon the variety, the size of the plum, and the weather. (2) They are treated by, evajioration. the drying being ef- fected by fire heat. In this operation great care and skill are necessary, as too hot a fire will cause the fruits to burst, drip, and finally shrivel. If properly handled the evaporated product is superior to the sun-dried fruits. (3) The fruits in some European countries are partially cooked before being dried. Such prunes are softer than the sun-dried or evaporated ones. After being dried the fruit goes through a curing process, by being throwTi into bins or heaps to sweat, which takes from one to three weeks. After this they are ready for 'processing,' which consists in dip- ping fruits in boiling water and glycerin, steam- ing, or by 'rattling' in a revolving cylinder. The object of this operation is to improve the color and appearance of the fruit and to destroy the eggs of any insect which may be upon them. They are then ready for packing, the best prod- ucts being placed in boxes, although many are packed in bags. PRUNE INSECTS. Tlie insects which dam- age tlie ]irune are mainly those found on plums and peaches (q.v.). PRUNING (from prune, from OF. proignier, prognrr, provigncr, Fr. provigner, to prune, from 01*'., Fr. provin, vine, from Lat. propago, sucker, from propagnre, to propagate, from pro, before, for -|- pangere, G^.Tr-qyvivai., pcgnynai, to fasten). The removing of any part of a plant, either root, stem, or branch, to discourage growth in one direction and turn the energies of the plant in another. It is considered an artificial operation, but nature is a constant and very severe pruner, as is shown by the long, slender, limbless boles of many forest trees. When plants are taken from their natural environment and t}ie forces which regulate their habits, pruning becomes a necessity. In this work the gardener must be guided by the well-known laws of plant growth governing the healing of wounds and the balance of parts. At planting time the tops of trees must be pruned in order to establish a proper relation of top to root, which is always un- avoidably reduced in the process of digging. This pruning is necessary also because the roots
