SIAM. 127 SIAM. metamorphic schists, represent here in general a broken and complicated geological area. The climate is tropical, but not one of siieh extremes as might be expected. The humiditv, however, makes it trying for Europeans, and somewhat unhealthful. especially in the wet sea- son from May to October. The rainfall is in some sections as high as 240 inches: at Bangkok it is about 50 inches. Siam is more or less af- fected by the monsoons. In general the usual temperature ranges from 65° to 90°, the north- em and higher regions being drier and cooler, the thermometer at night there often falling below 50°. The cool season begins in November. In the north the valuable teak tree abounds, and oak and pine grow. Siam furnishes also rose- wood, ebony, and most of the tropical woods and fruits. Elephants roam wild and play a famous and varied rule in the life and industries of the country. The rhinoceros, tiger, leopard, the gavir, water-bull'alo. flying-fox, gibbon, and crocodile are also plentiful. The country is rich in mineral deposits. Con- siderable tin and some gold and copper are mined. Siam furnislies rubies and about one-half of the world's supply of sapphires. In Northern Siam immense forests cover tiie land, and the cutting of teak is a conspicuous industry (43.735 tons in IflOl). The logs drift down by water to the capital. The forests and the teak industry are imder British control. Agriculture is confined almost wholly to the river valleys. The great alluvial Menam plain, with its inundating fea- tures and irrigation facilities, is one of the rich- est of agricultural regions. But the farming methods are primitive and progress slow. Chi- nese coolies are mostly employed. In the vicinity of Bangkok large tracts are being converted into a fine farming country by the network of canals of a European irrigation company. Rice is the staple food of the Siamese, and is the great agri- cultural product. Cotton is also grown abun- dantly, and tea and tobacco are produced for liome consumption. Pepper comes from Chantahon. and sugar cane, cocoanuts, etc., are grown in large quantities. Most of the manufactures and traffic are in the hands of the Chinese, who are the real toilers. The imporfs and exports are mainly from and to Cliina, and are increasing, the former having amounted to about $14,000,000 in 1001, the latter to about .$21,000,000. Cotton goods form the leading article of import, and rice represents 80 per cent, of the exports. In 1001 ships with 1.090.000 tons entered and cleared the Siamese ports. A large trade is carried on back and forth across the northern boundary by local dealers. There are no good roads except near the leading towns. The streams are the great com- mercial highways. A railway extends from the capital to Paknan (15 miles) and a line goes to Korat (165 miles). Bangkok is the commercial capital. Siam has no national debt. In 1902 the public treasury contained £2.000,000 cash. The annual revenues and expenditures practically balance, having increased to about £2.230.000 in 1902-03. The revenues come mainly from the opium tax, customs, and the lottery and gambling tax. land tax and fisheries, the capitation tax. and the tax on spirits. Forests, mines, railway*, and post- offices are also taxed. A British official acts as adviser in the national finances. Bangkok has several branch banks which issue notes independ- ent of the Government. The political rfginie has long been enlightened and progressive. The government is an absolute monarchy, the succession now passing from father to son. The executive power is lield by the King. He is assisted by a Cabinet, whose members are the heads of the several depart- ments of national administration: Foreign af- fairs, finance, justice, interior, war, marine, police, public works, public instruction, etc. These officials are for the most part relatives of the King. Since 1895 there has been a Legis- lative Council. It is formed of the Cabinet and olScials, and twelve other persons selected by the King. Its members number fifty-one. The pre- scribed object of this body is to perfect national legislation, and to see that the new laws are ad- justed and enforced. The Siamese dominions proper are divided, inider the general control of the Jlinister of Interior, into forty-one adminis- trative circles (muntons), each with a commis- sioner at its head, having authority from the Crown. The authority of the various local jjrinces is gradually being absorbed by that of the strong central Government. The Malay States of Siam are governed by rajahs who are usually directed by commissioners with full pow- ers, sent by the King. These States retain a certain degree of independence. The Laos States in the north are likewise governed as tributary provinces, and there are still others. All slaves born after December 16, 1807, are free. The number of slaves is large, and the feudal system still hangs heavy on the land. The corvee has been superseded by the poll tax. There is now an international court in which suits of foreigners against Siamese are brought. The legal code is being modernized, and the police force is being remodeled, extended, and made etTective under English guidance. The authorized unit of money is the tical, worth at the rate of 17.46 ticals to the fl. The ehang represents 2^-5 pounds avoirdupois. The sen equals .568 of a mill. The regular army is in an inferior condition and numbers only 5000 men. There is no equipped militia. Young men are obliged to serve as recruits for three years, and after- wards for three months in every twelve. Priests, slaves, and certain other classes are exempted from service. There are 22 ships in the navy, 10 being over 500 tons. The marine infantry num- bers 15.000. Bangkok is protected by forts at the mouth of the Menam River, and a bar here also prevents large vessels from ascending the stream. The population is estimated at 5,000.000. con- sisting in part of 1.500.000 Siamese. 600,000 Chi- nese, and 600,000 Malays. Bangkok, the capital, is the only large city. Chiengmai, the capital of the Laos country, with over 50,000 inhabitants, is the leading town in the north, where the various tribes of the Thai race are found. In the ex- treme south are the Malays. The natives have largely intermarried with the energetic Chinese, who have entered the country in great numbers. The Siamese themselves are indolent and indif- ferent. As the Thai In the limited sense, they form the most important civilized section of the Thai stock of Farther India, akin to the Laotians and Shan tribes of the northern and eastern re- gions of Siam. The primitive Thai type has been very much changed among the Siamese by inter-
