the question and declares the determination of the House. As the representative of the House, he communicates its resolutions to others, and conveys its thanks or its censures. He issues warrants in execution of the orders of the House for the commitment of offenders, for the issue of writs, the attendance of witnesses, the bringing up prisoners in custody, etc. He cannot speak or vote on any question, but on an equality of voices he has a casting vote. The office is non-political; and hence a Speaker may hold during several successive and opposing administrations. A retiring Speaker is usually rewarded with a peerage. See Parliament.
Unlike the English prototype, the Speakership of the United States House of Representatives is a political office of the highest importance. The first Speaker, chosen in 1789, was a moderator on the British pattern. But beginning with the right to appoint the standing committees in 1790, the powers of the office have gradually expanded until the Speaker has become the acknowledged leader of the House and the chief of his party. Henry Clay (1811-25) developed the political resources of the office, especially through the constitution of committees. The modern Speaker has been well called the American Premier. So far has the office departed from its original character that the Speaker now has the right to dispense the privileges of the floor in the interest of his party. He may even refuse to ‘recognize’ on the ground of personal dislike. Moreover, since 1860, as chairman of the Committee on Rules, he may in effect control the whole course of legislation. He “practically decides what shall be considered, how long debates shall last, and when the votes shall be taken.” Through this function a kind of substitute for the right of the English Ministry to introduce and promote so-called ‘Government bills’ has been found. The Speaker is a member of the House chosen by the members; and he freely exercises his privilege of voting on any measure. Since 1874 his salary has been $8000 a year. He signs all bills, resolutions, and acts of authority: certifies to the mileage, etc., of members; and appoints three of the regents of the Smithsonian Institution. He may be removed from his office by an act of the House.
For the early history of the Speakership, consult Stubbs, Constitutional History, and in general, Todd, Parliamentary Government (London, 1869). The most important work on the American office is Follett, The Speaker of the House of Representatives (New York, 1896). This was preceded by Hart, “The Speaker as Premier,” in Atlantic Monthly, March, 1891; reprinted in his Practical Essays (New York, 1893).
SPEAKING TRUMPET. An instrument for concentrating the waves of sound originated by the articulation of the human voice, and thereby enabling the sound to be conveyed to a greater distance. It was used on shipboard in enabling the officers to convey orders during windy weather from one part of the deck to another, or to the rigging, and in its more modern form, the megaphone (q.v.) is extensively employed. The invention is ascribed to Sir Samuel Morland (1625-1695) in 1670, though Athanasius Kircher laid claim to it. Morland's trumpet was shaped like a truncated cone, with an outward curve or lip at the opening.
SPEARFISH, or Spikefish. The great ‘bill fish’ or ‘aguja blanca’ (Tetrapturus albidus) of West Indian waters, which is dark blue above, whitish beneath, and may be seven feet long, including the spear-like jaws, and weigh 100 pounds. It is probably identical with the Mediterranean species, and others occur in the Eastern tropics. Their habits are similar to those of their relatives the sailfishes and swordfishes. See Plate of Spearfish and Swordfish.
SPEARMINT. See Mint.
SPEARS, John Randolph (1850—). An American author and journalist, born at Van Wirt, Ohio. In 1875 he became editor of the East Aurora Advertiser, and the next year he founded the Silver Creek Local. He was a reporter on the Buffalo Express from 1880 until 1882, when he joined the staff of the New York Sun. His publications include: The Gold Diggings of Cape Horn (1895); The Port of Missing Ships and Other Stories of the Sea (1896); The History of Our Navy (1897); Our Navy in the War with Spain (1898); The Fugitive (1899); and History of the American Slave Trade (1900).
SPECIAL ASSESSMENT. A compulsory contribution levied in proportion to the special benefits derived from a public improvement, and designed to cover, entirely or in part, the cost of that improvement. A special assessment is levied most frequently in connection with the opening or improvement of streets or highways. It differs from a tax in that it is levied in proportion to the benefit directly derived from the uses to which the contribution is put. (See Tax.) Charges of the nature of special assessments were imposed in France as early as 1672. In 1807 a general law was passed authorizing such levies, but it has rarely been invoked. In Prussia, since 1875, the expenses of certain street improvements have been partially defrayed in this manner. In England contributions of the nature of special assessments were imposed in 1427 and in 1667. The Public Health Act of 1875 permits urban authorities, under certain contingencies, to recover the cost of improvements from property-owners, in proportion to the frontage of their premises. In England, however, no general policy of covering the costs of improvements by special assessments exists.
The principle of special assessments first appeared in America in a law of the Province of New York of 1691. By that law. however, all houses in the city of New York might be assessed in proportion to benefits derived from public improvements. By a law of 1787, assessments were limited to the owners of property which was intended to be benefited. In other States this form of revenue appeared about 1830. After the Civil War the principle became far more extended, and is now throughout the United States a recognized principle of local finance. In a typical case, when a street is graded or paved, after the improvement has been made a board of assessors is appointed, who apportion the cost in proportion to benefits received. Such assessments are usually subject to legal limitation as to amount. Consult Rosewater, Special Assessments (New York, 1893).
SPECIAL JURY. In the English law, a jury consisting of men who are entitled to be
