UNIVERSITY. 742 UNIVERSITY. theless the universities suffered greatly from the general decline of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries and did not recover with the early nine- teenth, as did those of the Nortliern European countries. While they preserved their ancient organization and local independence, they suf- fered both from a great decrease of revenue and from the political disturbances of the Italian States. After the political unification of Italy in 1870 the Government nationalized the universi- ties, by assuming their support and manage- ment and confiscating their property. Since that time the universities are included as a com- ponent part of the public system of education. There are seventeen of these State univer- sities ajid four free universities — that is, supported by the local districts and muni- cipalities. Consequently the ojjportunities for higher education are very much in excess of the needs of the population. Very few of these uni- versities possess theological faculties, and the theological studies are little valued. Education for the Church is given in seminaries controlled by the Church and in its ecclesiastical character is most complete. The theological schools of Rome draw students from all quarters of the world, and in conjunction with them there is a system of national colleges for the students of the several countries. Faculties of philosophy do not exist in the free universities and are poorly attended in the State institutions. The faculties of medicine and of law possess an overwhelming preponderance of all students. The State uni- versities are those of Bologna, Cagliari, Catania, Genoa, Macerata, Messina, Modena, Naples, Padua, Palermo, Parma, Pavia, Pisa, Rome, Sasseri, Siena, and Turin. The free universities are those of Camerino, Ferrara, Perugia, and Urbino. Dutch and Belgian Universities. The uni- versities of the Netherlands, which, like the later foundations of Germany, grew out of the Reforma- tion struggles, were founded by the State for the especial purpose of training the clergy. At the present time the Dutch universities are Leyden, Groningen, Utrecht, and Amsterdam, the last founded in 1877. These universities possess a uniform organization and are completely con- trolled by the State. The subjects of study and the examinations are determined by statute. Con- sequently there is little individuality among the universities and little to lead a student to prefer one institution to another. There are no col- leges or halls, and no oversight of the students by the faculty. The Dutch universities are closely modeled after the German, but do not possess their flexibility. The character of student life, of methods of instruction, of condi- tions of examinations, of degrees conferred, close- ly approximate those of the German universities. Belgium now has four universities, two of which, Li&ge and Ghent, are State universities similar to those of the Netherlands, while Louvain is controlled by the Roman Catholic Church, and Brussels is a free establishment. Spanish and Portuguese UNn'ERsixiES. There are at present nine universities in Spain, an ad- ditional law faculty at Oviedo. and a medical faculty at Cadiz. The universities are located at Barcelona, Granada, Madrid, Salamanca, Santi- ago, Seville. Valencia, Vnlladolid, and Saragossa. Each possesses two or more of the faculties of law, medicine, pharmacy, and science. Tuition charges are high and the universities depend al- most wholly ujjon this source of revenue. For the most part the Spanish universities i-esemble in organization the French faculties previous to the reforms of 1890 and are not in a flourishing state. The largest is that of JIadrid, with 95 juofessors and more than .5000 students in 1901. Portugal has one university, whose location in the early centuries of its existence alternated between Lisbon and Coimbra, but which is now at the lat- ter place. There are faculties of theology, law, medicine, mathematics, philosophy, and a school of design. See Coimbra, University of. Russian Universities are of two classes: those that are practicallj' universities of the German type and date from the Reformation period, and those typically Russian. There are two of the former: Dorpat, founded in 1632 (see YuRiEV, University of), and Helsingfors, in Finland, founded in 1640 by Queen Christina. The latter is a flourishing institution in the midst of a cultured jjeople possessing a system of universal and compulsory education. Both the population which supports it and the institution itself are more closely allied to the Scandinavian countries than to Russia. The seven Russian universities are as follows : Moscow, founded in 1755; Saint Vladimir at Kiev, founded in 1832; Kazan, founded in 1804; Kharkov, founded in 1804; Warsaw, founded in 1816; Saint Peters- burg, founded in 1819; Odessa, founded in 1865; and Tomsk, founded in 1888. In most of them the faculties are of history, science, jurispru- dence, medicine, and languages. The attendance varies from about 5000 at Moscow to about 500 at Tomsk. In addition to the universities there are six theological schools and various medical and technical schools not represented in the uni- versity faculties. Greece. No institutions of higher learning ex- isted in Athens during modern times until after the liberation of the Greeks in the early part of the nineteenth century. In 1837 King Otho estab- lished the University of Athens, closely modeled after the universities of Germany. The four faculties of law, medicine, theology, and philos- ophy were created, with the power of appoint- ment lodged with the King, who appointed mainly Germans. Since 1882 the right of nomination has been exercised by the faculties. Scandinavian Universities. All State insti- tutions since the Reformation have been strongly Lutheran in their character and are closely as- sociated with the national Church. They were founded on the model of German universities and for the most part reproduce the present features of these. They are as follows: Upsala, in Sweden, founded in 1477; Copenhagen, in Den- mark, founded in 1479; Lund, in Sweden, founded in 1666; and Christiania, in Norway, founded in 1811. The attendance varies from 2000 at Copenhagen to 650 at Lund. In addition to these universities there are in Sweden a State medical faculty at Stockholm, and private philo- sophical faculties at Stockholm and Goteborg. American Universities. In the United States popular usage employs the terms 'univer- sity' and 'college' indiscriminately for any higher institution of learning which possesses the power of conferring the usual academic degrees. This confusion prevails also in official nomenclature.
