just as much as he despised the aristocrat—for the leaders of radicalism, and above all the best writers on behalf of the movement, were of noble birth.
The public activities of the liberals were mainly devoted to the zemstvos, and these bodies were schools of political self-government. In the zemstvos, the petty bourgeois, the merchant, and the intellectual, could make themselves felt, just as well as the great landlord.
The activities of the revolutionary opposition were now accentuated, with the passive and at times more than passive assistance of the liberals. The government was disposed to make certain concessions (Loris-Melikov), but the assassination of Alexander II brought Katkov and Pobědonoscev into power. The new reaction was not immediately effective in arresting liberal activities, and these persisted especially in the zemstvos. It is true that Dragomanov, as spokesman of the constitutionalist liberals, solemnly proclaimed himself opposed to tyrannicide; but Dragomanov and his associates, no less than the revolutionaries, were compelled to seek asylum abroad.
The radical and democratic trend of Černyševskii was replaced by that of Mihailovskii, a mediator between liberalism and radicalism. Lavrov, though.a refugee, and more radical than Mihailovskii, did nothing to hinder the growth of liberalism.
After the death of Alexander II, came a period of vengeful reaction. Katkov and Pobědonoscev were its leading literary advocates, while Leont'ev was its chief liberal opponent.
The Social Democratic Party was constituted in 1853. The political activity of liberalism slackened in proportion as the organisation of the revolutionaries was hindered by the reaction.
The controversy between the Marxists and the narodniki during the middle nineties was advantageous to the liberals, more especially because the liberals for the most part were on the Marxist side. Moreover, discussion had an invigorating influence on all parties alike. A controversy of especial interest was that concerning the relationship of the social democracy and of the revolutionaries in general to the liberals. The relationship achieved practical recognition in the League of Deliverance (Sojuz Osvoboždenija), and this body furnished a platform for joint political activities. Then came the long-
