INTRODUCTION 44 14TH CENT. CASTLES protection to the besiegers. For instance, when the enceinte was taken, and the defenders had to retire for safety to the keep, they were unable with sufficient rapidity to climb the narrow ladder leading to the lofty door,' and were exposed to be cut off. It was thus found necessary to abandon the system of isolated defences. The garrison was no longer divided up into independent detachments, each occupying its own post ; the whole were united under one central command. Now, therefore, every facility was given for moving men from one part of the works to another, and the outer fortifications strengthened by every means the architect's ingenuity could devise. A smaller garrison of picked men was then found more suitable than the large garrisons of earlier times, composed of untrained vassals. The donjon was still retained, but it was now constructed more in the form of a dwelling than of a redoubt, and relied for security not so much on its own strength of construction, as on the numerous defences which surrounded it. The outer works adjoining the ditches were strengthened and provided with crenelated walls and rampai-t walks. The curtains are heightened and furnished with two stages of defences ; first, the projecting parapet with machicolations and loops, crowned by a second parapet with embrasures and loop-holes. In the case of the towers, these stories of defence are increased to three, and even five stages in height. The extra height of the curtains guarded against escalade, and a broad talus or ramp at the base not only strengthened the wall, but saved it from the attack of the miner by keeping the assailants well out, and exposing them to the missiles from above. There were no openings in the lower part of the main walls, and the various towers and parapets were so planned as to cover and protect one another. The gateways were of course defended in a special manner, having miniature castles erected beyond the ditch to cover the approach. Behind these extensive works a skilful commander with a small garrison could defy the attack of a large army. The defence now had the better of the attack. But this pre-eminence did not last long, and the tables were soon to be turned by the introduction of gunpowder in the attack of strong places. This took place about the beginning of the fifteenth century. While the above changes were going on in the defences of the castles, considerable modifications were also gradually introduced into the habita- tions within the walls. During the fourteenth century chivalry advanced and manners softened. The apartments were no longer limited to the hall, with solar and kitchen, and a few other rooms. Great suites of halls, reception rooms, private rooms, bedrooms, etc., were now introduced. The Castle of Pierrefonds, built by the Due d'Orleans about 1400, is a very fine example of the castle of the period, presenting a com- plete representation of the most powerful fortification, combined with
