were compiled. All these sūtras were of local validity. sectarian, unsystematic and incomplete. With the growth of society, a more comprehensive book, free from the defects mentioned, became necessary. The old and new parts of this work also have been ably determined by Dr. Bühler. He has very carefully gathered passages parallel to those of our text from ritualistic and dharma literature, two Upanishads, Nirukta, Mahābhārata and Vishnu Purāna, and has well discussed the source of additions which our writer must have made to the original Mänava-dharma-sutra.
Dr. Bühler has also discussed the question whether the recensions before us is an immediate offspring of Mänava dharma sūtra or was a gradual growth; and he concludes that it was done at once. He has placed the book somewhere between 200 B. C. and 200 A. D.
Nature of dharma.—It has already been said that Mānava-dharma-shāstra is a work on dharma. In order to interpret the book properly, we should first consider the nature of dharma.
The science of Dharma first evolved as a division of Kalpa sciences which dealt with sacrifices and ceremonial, and which were divided into Shrauta sūtras (aphorisms which treat of the duties of a sacrificer), Grihya sūtras (sūtras teaching the duty of a householder) and Dharma sūtra (which teach the duties of a citizen). The field which should be occupied by Dharma in contrast with those of Shrauta and Grihya was not sharply defined. Subjects treated by Dharma sūtra of a certain school are treated by Grihya sūtras of another school and vice versa. Dharma had various shades of meanings. It meant law proper, rule of right, morality religion, innate quality, justice, and above
