tion between the higher provincial authorities on the one hand and the chow and hsien districts on the other.
Over the t'ing or independent sub-prefecture was placed the t'ung chih. The same term was also applied to the official subordinate to the prefect, and several special officers also bore the title. Some of these were given military power, others were in charge of water communications, and still others were placed over districts inhabited by aboriginal tribes. There were also revenue-police sub-prefects and police sub-prefects.[1] Ranking with these independent sub-prefectures were the independent departments; but the ordinary department, though different in name, was in reality practically the same as the district or hsien.
The presiding officials of the chow and hsien were the lowest functionaries appointed directly from Peking, and they were the ones who actually presided over the affairs of the common people and came in contact with them. They were the centers both of imperial and of local government — the lowest imperial officer and the "father and mother" of the people. Professor Parker well summarises their duties thus, speaking of the hsien: "He is judge in the first instance in all matters whatsoever, civil or criminal, and also governor of the gaol, coroner, sheriff, mayor, head surveyor, civil service examiner, tax collector, registrar, lord-lieutenant, oedile, chief bailiff, interceder with the gods; and in short, what the people always call him, 'father and mother' officer."[2]
Of the various ways in which he secured office we cannot speak here. Purchase was one of the commonest methods. Tsêng Kuo-fan in one of his letters speaks about a friend who had purchased a hsien magistracy at a cost of 7,000 strings of cash and a chow magistracy for
