Physiological Researches upon Life and Death

by Xav. Bichat

PHYSIOLOGICAL RESEARCHES

 

UPON

 

LIFE AND DEATH;

 

BY XAV. BICHAT,

PHYSICIAN OF THE HOTEL-DIEU, PROFESSOR OF ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND MEDICINE, AND MEMBER OF SEVERAL LEARNED SOCIETIES.

 

TRANSLATED FROM THE FRENCH

 

BY TOBIAS WATKINS,

MEMBER OF THE MEDICAL AND CHIRURGICAL FACULTY OF MARYLAND, PHYSICIAN TO THE MARINE HOSPITAL OF BALTIMORE, &c.

 

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FIRST AMERICAN FROM THE SECOND PARIS EDITION.

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PRINTED BY SMITH & MAXWELL

PHILADELPHIA.

1809.

DEDICATION,

 

TO

 

J. N. HALLÉ,

 

MEMBER OF THE NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF FRANCE,

 

AND

 

PROFESSOR OF THE SCHOOL OF MEDICINE OF PARIS.

 

XAVIER BICHAT.

ADVERTISEMENT

 

OF

 

THE PARIS EDITOR.

 

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It was the intention of the author to have made some important additions to the first part of this new edition. Certain Articles now offered with modifications, would have appeared more complete, and been enriched with several new views: the reader would have found in it a Treatise on Beauty, considered physiologically. In a second volume, these physiological principles would have been applied to Medicine; and the same order which has now been pursued, in considering the functions in their healthy state, would have been adopted to consider them also in a state of disease. The death of the author has deprived the public of these advantages, and compels us again to offer the work in its original state. We conceived it due however, to the memory of citizen Bichat, to make known those intentions, the fulfilment of which he had already commenced.

AUTHOR'S PREFACE.

 

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Life and death, considered in a general manner, appeared to me a subject susceptible of several views, and many useful experiments. It was this which determined me to undertake the work which I now offer to the Public. I flatter myself the reader will find in it some considerations and facts but little known. Those, however, who have read Aristotle, Buffon, Morgagni, Haller, Bordeu, and others who have written upon this subject, will see that those authors have furnished me with some hints; but they will at the same time know how to distinguish the share which belongs to myself; and I dare hope they will see enough to convince them that whatever is not my own holds but a secondary place in these researches: I must except however the division of life.

Books resemble each other, either in the facts which they contain, or in the style in which they are written. The comparison of facts is easily made; it will show perhaps that many of those which I offer, were wanting to the science. As to the method observed in this work, I have endeavoured equally to avoid placing myself among those who accumulate experiments without correspondent reasoning, and among those who produce arguments unfounded in experiment.

In the present state of physiology, it appeared to me the most judicious plan to connect the experimental method of Haller and Spallanzani, with the grand and philosophic views of Bordeu; if I have failed in attaining this object, it has not been through want of knowing how to appreciate it.

I have extended some divisions already announced in my Treatise on the Membranes, and have again offered them as my own, notwithstanding they have been attributed to Buffon, Bordeu and Grimaud. These authors are so well known, that I considered it unnecessary to quote them with critical exactness. For this reason also I have not attempted to remove the doubts before expressed on some anatomical facts published by me. I shall merely refer those who have entertained these doubts to an inspection of the dead body. For those who gave rise to them, such an inspection is unnecessary: they cannot have forgotten that I have dissected with them, and have demonstrated to them what they now accuse me with having established upon unfounded conjecture.

Finally, I have been cautious, in this work as well as in my former one, not to rely too much upon myself, assured that a thousand circumstances may escape the notice of one and present themselves to another. My experiments have been made often in the presence of a great number, and always with several of the students who attended my lectures. Citizen Hallé has sacrificed much time in repeating the most important; and citizen Duméril has been equally polite. If they should excite the interest of any other lovers of science, my assistance shall be readily afforded.

AN ANALYTICAL TABLE OF CONTENTS.

 

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PART I.
PHYSIOLOGICAL RESEARCHES UPON LIFE.
ARTICLE I.
General division of life.
Definition of life.—General mode of existence of living bodies,		Page 1—2
§ I. Division of life into animal and organic.—Differences between the vegetable and animal.—The first has only one life; the second two.—Generation does not enter into the functions which compose them,		2—4
§ II. Subdivision of each of the lives, animal and organic, into two orders of functions.—The first order, in animal life, is established from the external sensitive organs towards the brain; the second from the brain towards the agents of locomotion and voice.—In organic life, one order is destined to the assimilation, and the other to the disassimilation of those substances which nourish the animal,		4—7
ARTICLE II.
General differences of the two lives with respect to the external forms of their respective organs.
§ I. Symmetry of external forms in animal life.—Examination of the symmetry in the organs of the senses, in the nervous system, brain, locomotive and vocal organs.—Remarks on the muscles and nerves of organic life,		7—9
§ II. Irregularity of external forms in organic life.—Examination of this irregularity in the organs of digestion, circulation, respiration, secretion, exhalation, &c.		9—10
§ III. Consequences which result from the difference of external forms in the organs of the two lives.—Independence of the two symmetrical halves of animal life.—Mutual dependence of organic functions.—Frequency of mal-conformation in the second; rarity of those defects in the first.—Observation,		10—13
ARTICLE III.
General differences of the two lives with respect to the mode of action of their respective organs.
§ I. Of the harmony of action in animal life.—It is derived from the symmetry of external forms.—Examination of this harmony in the sensations, in the cerebral action, locomotion and voice,		P. 14—25
§ II. Discordance of action in organic life.—It results from the irregularity of external forms.—Examination of this discordance in the different external functions,		25—27
ARTICLE IV.
General differences of the two lives with respect to the duration of their action.
§ I. Of the continuance of action in organic life.—Examination of this continuance.—Immediate dependence of internal functions,		27—28
§ II. Of the intermission of action in animal life.—Proofs of this intermission.—Independence of external functions,		29—30
§ III. Application of the law of intermission of action to the theory of sleep.—General sleep is the totality of the particular sleeps of animal life.—varieties in this state.—We rarely sleep twice after the same manner.—Connexion of day and night with sleep,		30—33
ARTICLE V.
General differences of the two lives with respect to habit.
§ I. Of habit in animal life.—Difference of its influence upon the feeling and judgment,		34
§ II. Habit blunts the feeling.—Division of pleasure and pain into relative and absolute.—Habit lessens relative pain and pleasure.—Various proofs of this assertion,		35—38
§ III. Habit perfects the judgment.—Different considerations on this subject,		39—40
§ IV. Of habit in organic life.—It exercises no influence on it in general.—Modifies some of its phenomena,		40—41
ARTICLE VI.
General differences of the two lives morally considered.
§ I. Whatever relates to the understanding belongs to animal life.—Different considerations thereon,		42—44
§ II. Whatever relates to the passions belongs to organic life.— Distinction of the passions from the sensations.—Proofs that all the passions affect the organic functions.—Examination of each function in this respect.—State of internal organs influences that of the passions.—Proofs of this assertion in health and disease,		P. 44—52
§ III. The passions regulate the actions of animal life though they have their seat in organic life.—Particular example of anger, fear, &c.—General considerations on the motions of the voluntary muscles, produced by the passions.—These motions are sympathetic.—Various observations on this head.—Influence of the stomach on the skin, by means of the passions,		52—57
§ IV. Of the epigastric centre; it does not exist in the sense in which authors have understood it.—It belongs neither to the pylorus, diaphragm, nor to the solar plexus of the great sympathetic—Note upon this nerve;—the idea commonly formed of it incorrect.—It is a collection of nervous systems and not a particular nerve.—Properly speaking, there is no epigastric centre.—Why lively emotions affect the superior region of the abdomen.—Different connexions between the phenomena of the understanding and of the passions,		57—64
ARTICLE VII.
General differences of the two lives with respect to their vital powers.
In the study of the powers of life we should rise from phenomena to principles, and not descend from principles to phenomena,		64—65
§ I. Difference of vital powers, with the physical laws.—Instability of the one compared to the stability of the others.—Should create an essential difference in the manner of studying the sciences of inanimate bodies and those of living bodies,		66—69
§ II. Difference between vital properties and those of texture,		69
§ III. Of the two kinds of sensibility, animal and organic.—Organic sensibility.—Animal sensibility.—Respective attributes of these two properties.—They appear to differ only in their intenseness and not in their nature.—Different proofs of this assertion, &c.		70—74
§ IV. Of the connexion which exists between the sensibility of each organ, and extraneous bodies.—Each organ has a determinate sum of sensibility.—It is this sum, and not the particular nature of the property, which varies its connexions with foreign bodies.—Numerous proofs of this assertion.—Different applications,		74—78
§ V. Of the two kinds of contractibility, animal and organic.—Parts sometimes move by dilatation.—The two species of contractibility become very observable in violent deaths.—Difference of the two kinds of contractibility with respect to their correspondent sensibility,		78—80
§ VI. Subdivision of organic contractibility into two varieties.—Sensible organic contractibility.—Insensible organic contractibility.—These two properties differ only in their intenseness, and not in their nature.—Essential difference between the two kinds of contractibility and the two kinds of sensibility,		Page 81—85
§ VII. Properties of texture; extensibility and contractibility.—Phenomena of extensibility.—Different degrees of this property.—Phenomena of contractibility of texture.—Examples to distinguish the different properties of life and texture in the organs,		85—90
§ VIII. Recapitulation of the properties of living bodies.—Table of these properties.—Proper life of the organs,		91—93
ARTICLE VIII.
Of the origin and development of animal life.
§ I. The first order of functions of animal life is null in the fœtus.—Proofs of this assertion as to general and particular sensations, as to the cerebral functions, perception, imagination, judgment, &c.		94—100
§ II. Locomotion exists in the fœtus, but belongs to organic life.—The motions of the fœtus are like those which the passions produce in the voluntary muscles of the adult.—Consequences drawn from this principle,		100—104
§ III. The development of animal life, and education of its organs.—The sensations, cerebral functions, locomotion and voice, are developed by degrees,		104—107
§ IV. Influence of society upon the education of the organs of animal life.—Society perfects certain organs of animal life.—Division of human occupations.—Society contracts the sphere of action of several external organs,		107—109
§ V. Laws of the education of the organs of animal life.—But one organ can be perfected at a time.—The sum of its perfection is in a ratio with the imperfection of the others.—Numerous considerations to establish this principle.—Its application to social education,		109—115
§ VI. Duration of the education of the organs of animal life.—Connexion between the education of various organs and their ages,		115—118
ARTICLE IX.
Of the origin and development of organic life.
§ I. Of the mode of organic life in the fœtus.—The order of functions of assimilation is very simple, and very rapid.—The order of functions of disassimilation, slow, and contracted.—Rapidity of growth, effect of this double disposition,		118—122
§ II. Development of organic life after birth.—The external organs require no sort of education.—These organs are not susceptible of superiority over each other:—when such superiority does exist, it is owing to original constitution,		Page 122—125
ARTICLE X.
Of the natural end of the two lives.
§ I. Animal life is the first to cease in natural death.—How the sensations, cerebral action, locomotion, &c. are extinguished.—Reflection on the infancy of old age.—Comparison of the duration of the two lives.—Influence of society upon the quicker termination of animal life.—Advantage of this termination being prior to that of organic life,		126—132
§ II. Organic life does not finish in natural as in accidental death.—In the first it is from the circumference to the centre; in the second it is from the centre to the circumference, that the phenomena of death take place,		132—134
PART II.
PHYSIOLOGICAL RESEARCHES UPON DEATH.
ARTICLE I.
General considerations upon death.
Natural death is rare.—Accidental death may be divided into that brought on by diseases, and that which happens suddenly.—The latter will more particularly occupy us.—Why?—General phenomenon of all sudden deaths.—They all commence by the heart, lungs and brain.—Course we shall pursue in the examination.		135—139
ARTICLE II.
Of the influence which the death of the heart exercises ujion that of the brain.
Its agents of action on the brain.—Not the nerves.—Experiments.—They are the vessels,		139—141
§ I. Inquiry how the cessation of the functions of the heart with red blood interrupts those of the brain.—The heart interrupts the cerebral action by the motion which it communicates to the brain.—The absence of this action therefore is the object of our inquiry.—Experiments and different considerations to establish this fact.—Difference between the motion of the brain and that of the other viscera.—Experiments,		141—147
§ II. Inquiry how the cessation of the functions of the heart with black blood, interrupts those of the brain.—Death seldom commences by the heart.—Some few instances of it.—Examination of the manner in which animals perish, by the injection of air into their veins.—It is the brain which then dies first.—Experiments, &c.		Page 147—150
ARTICLE III.
Of the influence which the death of the heart exercises upon that of the lungs.
Division of respiratory phenomena,		151
§ I. Inquiry how the action of the lungs is interrupted, when the heart with black blood ceases to act.—In this case the chymical phenomena are first annihilated,		152
§ II. Inquiry how the cessation of action in the heart with red blood interrupts that of the lungs.—In this case death commences by the mechanical phenomena,		153
ARTICLE IV.
Of the influence of the death of the heart upon all the organs.
§ I. Inquiry how the cessation of the functions of the heart with red blood interrupts those of all the organs.—The functions of animal and organic life then cease, partly from the same, and partly from different causes.—Comparison of the different organs with the brain, as to the ingress of blood, motion, &c.—Different considerations on the excitement of the organs by the motion of the blood which enters them,		154
I have passed over in silence the influence of the death of the heart with black blood upon that of the organs, because it is extremely rare that death commences by that.
ARTICLE V.
Of the influence which the death of the heart exercises upon general death.
Series of phenomena in the termination of the two lives.—Permanence of vital properties after death.—Some reflections upon syncope.—It only secondarily affects the brain; its seat is in the heart.—Different proofs of this assertion.—Sometimes in diseases death commences by the heart.—Vacuity of the lungs when this organ is the first affected,		162—168
ARTICLE VI.
Of the influence which the death of the lungs exercises upon that of the heart.
The death of the lungs commences sometimes by the chymical and sometimes by the mechanical phenomena,		169
§ I. Inquiry how the heart ceases to act by the interruption of the mechanical phenomena of the lungs.—The folds of the lungs are no obstacle to the circulation, in respiration.—Different experiments to establish this principle.—Note upon the state in which the lungs of dead bodies are found.—The distension of the cells during inspiration, cannot obstruct the course of the blood.—The cessation of mechanical phenomena interrupts the circulation, by annihilating the chymical phenomena,		Page 170—174
§ II. Inquiry how the heart ceases to act by the interruption of the chymical phenomena of the lungs.—The cause of the heart's loss of motion is not the simple contact of black blood upon the internal surface of the ventricle of red blood.—Various considerations and experiments to prove this fact.—The contact of black blood may excite the internal surface of the arteries.—Experiments on this subject.—Black blood stops the motion of the heart by penetrating its texture, and insinuating itself into all its fibres.—Why the heart with black blood is the last to end its pulsations.—The non-excitement of the ventricle of red blood by the black, is nevertheless true to a certain point.—Experiments.—In animals with red and cold blood the lungs have less influence on the heart.—Why in the interruption of the chymical phenomena, the system with black blood is fuller than that with the red.—Causes of this phenomenon as they relate to the blood:—and to the lungs.—Causes which relate to the heart.—Analogy between the fulness of the heart with black blood, and the swelled appearance of the spleen in dead bodies,		175—194
ARTICLE VII.
Of the influence which the death of the lungs exercises upon that of the brain.
The black blood by penetrating the texture of the brain, destroys its action.—Various experiments to establish this fact.—Injection of different substances into the brain, which act nearly in the same manner as the black blood.—Different results.—Experiments.—Excitement of the brain by the injection of red blood in asphixia, not very advantageous.—All the phenomena of asphixia, as well as experiments, prove that the cessation of cerebral action takes place by the contact of black blood.—Influence of the lungs on the brain in reptiles and fish.—Conclusion,		195—208
ARTICLE VIII.
Of the influence which the death of the lungs exercises on that of all the organs.
§ I. Explanation of the phenomena of the production of black blood, in the interruption of the chymical functions of the lungs.—Experiments on this subject have not been correct.—Precautions therein.—General process of my experiments.—Their results in the interruption of the red colouration of black blood.—Other results relative to the return of the red colour.—Consequences deduced from these experiments.—Considerations on the inflation of air into the trachea-arteria, to recover persons from asphixia.—Experiment on the colouration of the blood, by breathing the different gases.—Colouration takes place only at the bronchial extremity,		Page 209—218
§ II. The blood left black by the interruption of the chymical phenomena of the lungs, penetrates all the organs, and there circulates for some time in the vascular system of red blood.—Different experiments to prove the circulation of black blood in the arteries of the organs.—Experiments on the muscles, nerves, skin, mucous and serous membranes, &c.—Different ways in which black blood is carried in the general capillary system.—Application of the preceding experiments to explain the connexion between the mother and fœtus with respect to the circulation.—Why the blood is always black in the whole system of red blood, in dead bodies,		218—225
§ III. Black blood is not capable of keeping up the action and life of the organs, which it penetrates as soon as the chymical functions of the lungs have ceased.—Proofs of the excitement of the organs by red blood.—Conjectures on the mode of excitement.—How black blood interrupts the functions of animal life.—Experiments.—How the functions of organic life cease also by the contact of this blood.—Life may be sustained though the foramen ovale remain open.—Reflections on the white organs,		226—2S5
ARTICLE IX.
Of the influence which the death of the lungs exercises on general death.
Succession of phenomena of general death by that of the lungs,		235—237
§ I. Remarks on the differences presented by different cases of asphixia.—All asphixia do not depend on the simple contact of black blood on the organs.—Varieties of these affections.—Their division into asphixia by the simple contact of red blood, and those by black blood, as well as those by poisons.—How poisons act in the economy.—They pass into the blood.—Different considerations and experiments.—Poisons particularly influence the organs of animal life, and among these the brain.—The cause which produces variety of symptoms in asphixia, is the variety of poisons,		237—254
§ II. Death for the most part commences by the lungs. The lungs are embarrassed in the last moments.—The contact of black blood then terminates life previously weakened by this disease,		254—257
ARTICLE X.
Of the influence which the death of the brain exercises on that of the lungs.
§ I. Inquiry whether the lungs cease to act directly by the death of the brain.—The brain does not directly influence the lungs.—Various experiments.—The agitation in the circulation and respiration produced by pain, does not prove a direct action of the brain on the lungs or heart.—Various considerations.—Conclusion,		Page 257—265
§ II. Inquiry whether the lungs cease to act indirectly by the death of the brain.—The intercostals and diaphragm constitute the medium of death, when the brain ceases its action.—Different experiments.—Considerations on the connexion of cerebral action and respiration in a series of animals,		265—269
ARTICLE XI.
Of the influence which the death of the brain exercises on that of the heart.
§ I. Inquiry whether the heart ceases immediately to act by the interruption of cerebral action.—The brain has no immediate influence on the heart.—Observations and experiments in proof of this.—Effect of galvanism on the heart in animals with red and cold blood, and those with red and hot blood.—Conclusion,		270—278
§ II. Inquiry whether, in injuries of the brain, the death of the heart is produced by that of an intermediate organ.—The lungs are this intermediate organ.—Different experiments to establish this fact.—Consequence from these experiments.—Considerations on the connexion of the heart and brain in animals with cold blood,		278—282
ARTICLE XII.
Of the influence which the death of the brain exercises on that of all the organs.
The interruption of animal life is sudden and direct in the death of the brain,		282—293
§ I. Inquiry whether the interruption of organic functions is a direct effect of the cessation of cerebral action.—The brain does not directly influence organic functions.—Observations and experiments to prove this fact.—Considerations on the ganglions and great sympathetic.—Galvanic experiments.—Conclusion,		283—293
§ II. Inquiry whether the interruption of organic functions is an indirect effect of the cessation of cerebral action.—Intermediate organs whose death brings on the cessation of organic functions, when the cerebral action is interrupted.—Succession of phenomena.—Analogy between asphixia and the death which commences by the brain.—Considerations on the connexion of the brain and organs in animals with cold blood,		293—297
ARTICLE XIII.
Of the influence which the death of the brain exercises on general death.
Succession of phenomena of general death by that of the brain.—Permanence of the powers of organic life.—Varieties in the state of the lungs.—In diseases death commences sometimes by the brain,		Page 298—300