South-Indian Images of Gods and Goddesses/Chapter 3

by Hosakote Krishna Sastri

CHAPTER III.

vishnu.

I

Vishnu is the second member of the Hindu Triad. His principal function is that of the protector of the universe. He is worshipped in South-Indian temples in various forms and under various names. The general description of Vishnu without reference to any of his particular incarnations is given in the Mānasāra as follows:—He has four arms and two eyes, wears a high crown and a yellow scarf; on his breast is the auspicious mark Srivatsa; he holds the discus and the conch in his upper arms and the club and the sword (or lotus) in the lower and wears the garland (vanamālā) of flowers, reaching down to the knees. In some cases the lower arms exhibit the protecting and the boon-conferring postures (fig. 11).^[1] A prominent nose, broad eyes and smiling countenance are other features of Vishnu. The goddesses Srī or Lakshmī (wealth) and Mahī or Prithvī (Earth) are usually represented on his right and left sides respectively.^[2] The discus is generally held in the right hand and the conch in the left; but this arrangement is reversed in the case of an image found in the Bellary district (fig. 12). According to the Kāsyapa-Silpa the left lower hand of Vishnu may, without showing the varada or boon-conferring posture, rest on his waist freely (fig. 13) and the goddesses need not always be represented with him. Figures of Vishnu may be seen standing, seated or reclining. They receive different names in their different postures; but the Vaishnava symbols, viz., the discus and conch, the garland vanamālā and the auspicious mark Srivatsa always remain the distinguishing features of Vishnu. Fig. 14

Fig. 11.—Vishnu (Ashtabhuja); Conjeeveram.

Fig. 12.—Vishnu; Bellary.

Fig. 13.—Vishnu; Paramesvaramangalam.

Fig. 14.—Vishnu and his consorts; Ariyambakkam.

from Āriyambākkam in the Chingleput district illustrates the sitting form of Vishnu with the goddesses Sri and Bhū and two kneeling devotees.

II

His ten
incarnations.The more popular forms of Vishnu, worshipped in the temples, generally refer to his numerous avatārs or incarnations. There are ten such avatārs recognized as of primary importance; but of these only five are commonly represented for worship. They are (l) Varāha "the Boar incarnation"; (2) Narasimha "the Man-lion incarnation"; (3) Vāmana "the Dwarf incarnation," developing eventually into Trivikrama; (4) Rāma, the hero of the Rāmāyana; and (5) Krishna, the pastoral god and the chief actor in the great war of the Mahābhārata. The other five incarnations of Vishnu, viz., the Fish, the Tortoise, Parasurāma, Buddha and Kalki though represented largely on walls, pillars and ceilings of temples being either carved or painted, are not generally worshipped as the chief deity in a temple.^[3].

Ill

Varaha or
Boar incarnation. Varāha, also known as Ādivarāha, Dharanīvarāha or Bhūvarāha, is beautifully illustrated by the image in the Varāha-Perumāl cave-temple at Mahābalipuram. Here the boar-faced Vishnu is seen standing with his right foot resting on the hood of the serpent-god Sēsha. On the right thigh is seated the goddess Earth,^[4] supported in position by the two lower arms of the god. He wears a high crown and has in his two upper hands the discus (held sideways) and the conch. As these images however have recently been covered with a thin coating of plaster and painted fantastically in variegated colours, it is not possible to say what sculptural peculiarities the original may have exhibited. Fortunately, a panel representing this same Varāha-avatar of Vishnu (fig. 15) with attendant deities, is found in another rock-cut mandapa at that village and is decidedly a true copy of the sculptures

Fig. 15.—Boar incarnation of Vishnu : Seven Pagodas.

found in the shrine of the Varāha-Perumāl cave-temple. The scene depicts the primeval Boar rescuing from the depths of the ocean the goddess Earth, who had been kidnapped thither by the demon Hiranyāksha, an enemy of the gods. Sēsha, on whose wide-spread hoods the earth is generally supposed to rest, is also represented as rising from the ocean along with the Boar-god. He is folding his hands in the attitude of worship. The devas worshipping the god from above, the sages on the right, and Brahmā and Siva on the left indicate the joy felt by the entire universe on this occasion. This representation exactly follows the description given by Hēmādri in his Chaturvarga-Chintamani. The hand with the discus is sometimes also shown as raised in the act of killing Hiranyāksha. The god may be represented as smiling after having killed Hiranyāksha and revived him by divine grace. Figures of the Man-boar in meditation or of a full Boar digging the earth in the midst of many demons, are also sometimes represented. In the pictures of Lingōdbhava (Siva) noted in the sequel, is seen the full Boar form of Vishnu digging the earth.

Temples dedicated to the Boar-incarnation of Vishnu are not many. This incarnation was a particular favourite of the Western Chalukya kings in the early centuries of the Christian era. A fine sculpture of Varāha carrying the goddess Earth is found in the Chalukyan rock-cut temple at Bādāmi (Ind. Ant., Vol. VI, p. 354).^[5] In later times, too, the Kākatīyas, the Reddis of Kondavldu and the Hindu sovereigns of Vijayanagara, paid particular reverence to Varāha, adopting the boar as their royal crest. At Srīmushnam in the South Arcot district is a beautiful big temple dedicated to this god and so also is another at Tiruvadandai near Mahābalipuram in the Chingleput district.

IV

NARASIMHA
or the
Man-lion
incarnation.Narasimha or Nrisimha, the Man-lion is more popular than Varāha. A large number of families in the south, Brahman and non-Brahman, own him as their tutelary deity. In Tamil, the name is corrupted into Singa (Sanskrit Simha) or Singa-Perumal, and in the other vernaculars into Narasa (a contraction of Narasimha). The story of this incarnation of Vishnu is briefly as follows :-

Hiranyāksha and Hiranyakasipu were two demon brothers,naturally hostile to Vishnu. Hiranyāksha was killed

Fig. 16.—Narasimha bursting forth from the pillar; Ahōbalam.

by Vishnu in his Varāha-avatār. Hiranyakasipu then became the king of the demons and vowed eternal war with Vishnu. His young son, Prahlāda, however, became a devoted adherent of Vishnu and was always praising him as the all-pervading lord of the universe. Exasperated with this, Hiranyakasipu asked the young boy whether his god Vishnu,if he was all-pervasive, could be found in the pillar in front of him; and then hacked at it with his sword. The pillar cleft in twain and out burst from it, to the astonishment of Hiranyakasipu, the angry god in the shape of a Man-lion,(fig. 16), who forthwith tore to pieces the impious demon king.

Ugra-
Narasimha.The angry god is called Ugra (the terrible)-Narasimha (figs. 17 and 18). When, however,his anger subsided at the earnest prayers of Prahlāda he became serene and in this form he is known as Lakshmī-Yōga-Narasimha (fig.19)is another form in which the god is seensquatting in a meditative mood. Simhāchalam in the Lakshmī
Narasimha ;Vizagapatam district, Ahōbalam in the Kurnool district and Nāmakkal^[6] in the Trichinopoly district may be mentioned among the places sacred to Narasimha. The usual Vaishnava symbols, sankha (conch) and chakra (discus), are seen in the two upper hands of the image of Narasimha in all Yōga
Narasimha.his forms. The monolithic Ugra-Narasimha found in the ruins of Vijayanagara was there established by king Krishnarāya in A.D. 1528. It may be noted that here the god, though called Ugra-Narasimha, is not represented, as may be expected, in the posture of splitting open the bowels of the demon Hiranyakasipu.

Hēmādri states that Narasimha must be represented with muscular shoulders, a stout neck and a slender waist. Half man and half lion, his face must be fiery and so also the mane round it. Standing with his right foot bent forward (ālidha) he splits with his sharp nails the breast of the tyrant Hiranyakasipu, who, as the wise men say, is an embodiment of ignorance. The Pāncharālrāgama thus describes the form of Narasimha suited for meditation :- " (Terrible) like flaming fire, he has a lion-face with a human body, furious fangs, a protruding tongue, an open mouth, a thick mane and muscular chest. He stands in the ālidha posture in an angry mood and splits the breast of the giant, thrown flat upon his thigh, with the sharp nails of both his hands. In his two other hands he holds the symbols' of the club and the discus." The Mayatmata, while giving almost

Fig. 17.—Ugra-Narasimha; Ahōbalam.

Fig. 18.—Ugra-Narasimha (metal); Madras Museum.

Fig. 19.—Yōga-Narasimha; Tirupati Hill.

the same description of him, states that the cruel form of Narasimha is installed on mountain-tops, caves, forests or the enemy's territory when the enemy has to be destroyed ; when installed, however, in villages and towns he has four hands, two of which wear the conch and the discus.

V

Vāmana or
the Dwarf
incarnation.Vamana or the Dwarf incarnation of Vishnu is worshipped in its ultimate manifestation, under the Sanskrit name Trivikrama or the Tamil Ulagalanda-Perumal. The former means " the god who took three strides " and the latter " the lord who measured the universe (with, three strides)."

The story is that a powerful demon king named Bali, the great-grandson of Hiranyakasipu mentioned above, conquered the three worlds and ruled them, in spite of his birth, in charity and with justice. Indra, the chief of gcds, was thus superseded. Vishnu as the avowed destroyer of the demons (dānavas) and the upholder of the gods had to restore Indra to his legitimate position. Vishnu could not go to war against Bali, as he was a virtuous king. So he went in the guise of a Dwarf Brāhmana, a student of the Vēdas (brahmachārin), and begged of Bali for three feet of land on which he could sit and meditate on Brahman undisturbed. The generous Bali granted the request. But what was his astonishment when he saw the cunning Trivikrama.god grow to a height transcending the world, take in at one step the whole earth, covering the sky with the next, and demanding of Bali to show him room for the third. True to his promise, Bali offered his own head, on which the god placed his foot and sent him down to the lower regions. Greatly pleased with the king's nobility and firmness of character, Vishnu is still supposed to be guarding as his servant the palace of Bali in the world below.

There are not many temples dedicated to this god. At Tirukkoyilur in the South Arcot district is a celebrated shrine of Trivikrama. Another one is the Ulagalanda-Perumāl temple at Kānchī. In the Varāha-mandapa at Mahābali-puram, on the panel opposite to the Varāha-avatār described above, is a fine representation of Trivikrama^[7] (fig. 20). Here the god has eight hands. The foremost arm on the right side is artistically made to support the lintel, while the remaining three hold the discus, club and the sword. Of the arms on the left side two hold the bow and the shield ;

Fig. 20.—Trivikrama; Seven Pagodas.

the third has the conch and the fourth is pointed towards Brahmā seated on the lotus. This Brahmā has four hands and four faces (?). He reverently touches with one of his hands the toe of the uplifted leg of Trivikrama and with another touches the finger of the god pointed towards him. On the corresponding right side of Trivikrama is found apparently Siva, also on a lotus-seat. The Sun and Moon, with circles of light behind their heads, perhaps to distinguish their respective functions, are seen flying in the air half way down the high face of the god. Two other heavenly beings, one of which is on a level with the head of Trivikrama and has a horse-face,^[8] are also flying in the air. The seated figures at the foot of Trivikrama are apparently Bali and his retinue who are struck with amazement at the sudden transformation of the stunted Vamana into the all-pervading Trivikrama. In the Rāmasvāmin temple at Kumbakōnam is a sculptured pillar (fig. 21) on which the story of the Vāmana-avatār is well represented. The lower section shows Bali and his wife granting boons to Brāhmanas. In the upper section is the god Trivikrama under a floral arch. His right foot is placed in the two open palms of the Earth. On his right is the image of the Dwarf. His vehicle Garuda is behind him. On the left side are evidently Bali and his wife standing. This description of Trivikrama exactly coincides with what has been given above, except that the hand supporting the lintel in the Mahābalipuram panel is here shown as offering protection. Tumburu is also seen above on the floral arch, flying in the air.

The exact form of Vāmana, prior to his manifestation as Trivikrama, is, according to Hēmādri, that of a fat young student of the Vēdas with crooked joints, holding a staff in his hand and wearing on his back the skin of a black buck (krishnājina) (fig. 22). Representations of Vāmana figures with water-pot in one hand and an umbrella in the other^[9] on demarcation stones of fields granted in charity, were quite common even down to the end of the nineteenth century. This auspicious figure evidently denoted fortune and was appropriately connected with boundary stones and the measurement of land. A festival in honour of Bali is still observed by the people of Mysore on the first day after the Dīpāvali-Amāvāsyā. In Malabar people connect Bali with

Fig. 21.—Trivikrama; Kumbakōnam.

Fig. 22.—Vāmana; Namakkal.

their national harvest festival, the Ōnam, in which they worship a clay figure of this high-minded emperor. It is supposed that the king is permitted by Vishnu to visit every year the fair earth over which he once ruled and to satisfy himself that the people are quite as happy and glad as in his time.

VI

Rāma Incar
nation.We now come to the avatār of Rāma, Rāmachandra Rāmabhadra, the hero of the beautiful epic Rāmāyana, which in its various aspects has permeated the life of the Indian people and moulded their character to a great extent. Rāma was the eldest son of Dasaratha, the king of Ayōdhyā (Oudh). As such, his images do not, like those of the avatārs so far described, avatārs which were sudden outbursts of divine energy exhibit either the four arms of the gods or the distinguishing Vaishnavite symbols of conch, discus, club and lotus. Human in form, but god in essence, Rāma is always represented as a royal personage of bewitching beauty, well developed in body, having broad eyes, long arms, curly tresses, ornaments and auspicious marks that indicate high birth and noble character. Paintings of Rāma's life are numerous and cover the whole period of his history from his birth to his passing away bodily from this world into the depths of the Sarayū river. In many South-Indian temples may be observed scenes from the Rāmānyana, either painted on the walls or cut into panels, forming continuous belts round the central shrine or the prākāra wall.^[10] When represented as the consecrated deity within a temple, Rāma is generally seen to be a standing figure with his queen Sītā on the left and his faithful brother Lakshmana on the right. He and his brother hold bows and arrows. The bow is called kōdanda and so Rāma with the bow is sometimes known as Kōdanda-Rāma.

In the accompanying illustration of metallic images from Ramēsvaram (fig. 23) the positions of Sītā and Lakshmana are interchanged and the arrows and quivers are missing. The two images at either extreme represent their faithful servant Hanuman (see below p. 64). As stated in the Silpasangraha, the figures of Rāma are distinguished as independent and dependent. In the former case he stands alone and has four arms, two of which hold the bow and the arrow and the other two, the conch and the discus. In the latter he has two arms and may be accompanied by his three brothers, his queen

Fig. 23.—Rama and group (metal); Rāmesvaram.

Sītā, the monkey hosts and the Rākshasa chiefs headed by Vibhīshana. Rāma with Sītā on his side is generally contemplated upon as seated in the aerial car Pushpaka in the vīrāsana posture within a golden pavilion and underneath the celestial tree (kalpa-vriksha). In his front stands Hanumān reading, while Rāma is explaining the mystery of philosophy to the crowds of sages who gather round him along with his royal brothers Bharata, Lakshmana and Satrughna.^[11]

VII

Krishna
incarna
tion.Krishna is the next avatār of Vishnu^[12] which is highly venerated by the Hindus. The Bhāgavata-Purāna which describes i ? carna in detail the early life of Krishna in Brindāvana (Brindāban) has provided more material for iconology than his subsequent career as the moving spirit of the Mahābhārata-war, the author of the " Divine Song " Bhagavad-Gitā or the benevolent chief of Dvārakā (Dwārka, Baroda).

Three stages in the life of Krishna have been marked out to be the most prominent. As a baby, not yet weaned from his mother's breast, he is Santāna-
Gōpalarepresented in the arms of Yasōda. This form of Krishna receives the name Santāna-Gōpāla.Also as a baby divine, identified with Supreme Vishnu,he is sometimes pictured as lying on a banyan-leaf (Vatapa-trasāyin) sucking the toe of his leg held Vatapatra-
Sāyin.by the hand. These pictures of the baby-god are commonly seen in paintings.

Krishna is also represented as a winsome boy, full of fun and frolic and fond of thieving milk and butter from the neighbouring cottages of cowherds living at Brindāvana. It is said that on one occasion Yasōdā punished him by tying him up to a mortar. The child then ran along, dragging the mortar behind him ; but in trying to pass between two tall and stout trees standing close together, the heavy mortar was caught between and felled them down ; when lo ! the trees assumed the shape of the two sons of Kubēra, the god of riches, who being cursed by the sage Nārada to assume the shape of trees had been waiting long to be thus restored by the Lord Krishna to their original form. The first part of this incident is represented in fig. 24.

In South India pictures of Krishna with a pot of butter under his left arm and eating out of a ball of it placed in the palm of his right hand are not uncommon. On either side of him are represented shepherd girls of Brindāvana.^[13] This form of Krishna, though very often meditated upon and sung about even in nursery rhymes, is rarely worshipped as the chief figure in temples-a famous exception to this being Udipi in the South Canara district, where a big temple, richly endowed, is maintained for the worship of the god Bāla Bala-
Krishna.Krishna.^[14] In the Madras Museum are two metallic images of dancing Krishna, one of which holds in its right hand a ball of butter^[15] (fig. 25). A peacock's feather stuck into the tuft of hair knotted overhead is, along with the other golden jewellery peculiar to children, a special feature of Krishna as a boy. Gold and silver images of this form of Krishna in miniature are among the set of idols worshipped daily in an orthodox Brāhmana's house. Vaishnavism in its various forms prevailing throughout India praises the child form of Krishna in the sweetest of strains with an overflow of devotion peculiar to that creed alone.

Kāliya-
KrishnaAnother story of the boy Krishna is represented in his dance on the head of a serpent named Kāliya (the black). Kāliya was hiding in a pond in the Yamunā river and making the whole neighbourhood poisonous to all living beings. One day the cattle tended by Krishna and his companions strayed into this region and were thereby poisoned. Krishna then plunged into the pond and holding the viper by the tail

Fig. 24.—Krishna tied to a mortal; Penukonda.

Fig. 25.—Butter-dance of Bala-Krishna (metal); Madras Museum.

in one hand began to dance heavily on his raised hoods. The demon writhed under the pressure of the god's tiny feet, vomiting blood profusely from each of his several mouths, and was completely exhausted and overcome. Then at last the serpent Kāliya recognized the Lord and took himself away to a remote island in the far-off sea. The esoteric sense of this is clear. The serpent represents the embodiment of all that is vile and wicked in this world; the dance of Krishna represents the fight with evil and its final conquest by the Divine Spirit. Kāliya-Krishna is found only as a decorative figure in temples but not as the object of worship in the central shrine. As in the case of Bāla-Krishna, miniature figures of Kāliya-Krishna are often found among the images of worship in a Brāhmana's house. A copper idol representing this sport of Krishna was discovered some years ago among the treasure trove found at Kāttu-Edayāru in the South Arcot district (fig. 26). The figure has two hands, a jewelled crown and the usual ornaments. Being a copper image it may be inferred that the idol was used only for processions in the temple to which it originally belonged. According to the Silpasāra the right foot of Kālingamardana (i.e., Kāliya-Krishna) is slightly bent and the left raised up. Of the two arms the left is stretched out in the abhaya posture and the right holds the tail of the serpent. The figure is fully decorated with ornaments and is dark in colour. The illustration from Kāttu-Edayāru shows the same features except that the positions of the right and left legs are interchanged. The third and the most divine sport of Krishna is his moonlight dance on the sand-banks of the Jumna in the company of the damsels of Brindāvana. The inspired poet Līlāsuka, describing this dance, says that "there, in the circle of dancers (filled with love for Krishna) was seen between damsel and damsel a Mādhava (Krishna) and between Mādhava and Mādhava a damsel; and in the centre of the group again, was the son of Dēvakī playing upon his flute," thereby indicating in poetic language the mystic significance of the dance. Of the many Gōpī (cow-herd)Radha-
Krishna girls thus in attendance on Krishna in his early life in Brindāvana the most beloved was Rādhā, so much so that Rādhā-Krishna is the name by which he is addressed by the most ecstatic of the zealous Vaishnava cult.

Vēnu-
GopālāImages of the flute-playing Krishna generally called Vēnu-Gōpāla (Muralīdhara) without, however, the circle of dancers, are largely worshipped in temples. He stands on his left leg with the right bent across and resting on the toe,

Fig. 26.—Serpent-dance of Kaliya-Krishna (metal); Madras Museum.

and plays upon the flute. When the figure is intended for worship in temples the two upper hands will hold the conch and the discus and there will usually also be the images of his two consorts Rukminī and Satyā on either side (fig. 27).^[16] In the hundred-pillared mandapa of the Varadarājasvāmin temple at Little Conjeeveram is a figure of the flute-playing Krishna with ten arms (fig. 28). The Pāncharātrāgama calls this form of Krishna by the name Madana-Gōpāla. In paintings Madana-
Gōpala. Vēnu-Gōpāla is often represented as leaning against a cow, with one foot bent crosswise and resting on the toe- Cows and cow-herds are also often shown gathering round him. The dance with Gōpis, with which the flute-playing Krishna is intimately connected, is found only in drawings. The esoteric sense of this flute-play and the dance is the supreme joy which the devotees experience in moments of overflowing love in the presence of the object of their devotion.

Another well-known sport of Krishna during his boyhood Govar-
Dhana
Krishnawas the lifting up of the hill called Gōvardhana. He is said to have held the hill aloft so as to give shelter to the cow-herds of Brindāvana from a continuous down-pour of rain sent down by Indra in anger in order to flood their small village. A beautiful old representation of this scene comes from the Seven Pagodas (fig. 29) where, in the so-called Krishna-mandapa, Krishna stands in the centre with his left hand raised straight up to support the hill, while his right hand is held in the posture of offering boons (varada)^[17] All round the god are seen cows and cow-herds, men and women, the latter carrying pots of milk, butter, curds or other cooked offerings to the god, and leading their young ones by the hand or accompanying their husbands. The ornaments of Krishna in this picture are very sparing. They are the usual large ear-rings peculiar to the sculpture of the Pallava period, bracelets,armlets and the waist-band. The high crown on the head is also a noticeable feature. This representation differs, however, from the description given in the Silpasāra where the god is described as having one hand with flute resting on his waist and the other supporting the hill.

Fig. 27.—Venu-Gopala; Madras Museum.

Fig. 28.—Madana-Gopala; Little Conjeeveram.

Fig. 29.—Govardhana-Krishna; Seven Pagodas.

Gōpīvastrā-
Pahāraka.Again Krishna on the tree is a familiar figure in paintingsand decorative sculptures of temples. The story is related in the Bhāgavata-Purāna how one day Krishna saw the cow-herd girls bathing naked in the Jumna leaving their clothes on the sand banks of the river and how he took away their clothes and got up a tree standing near by. He did not restore the clothes to the girls till they confessed their error in bathing naked against the teaching of the Sāstras. One of the usual processional vehicles in Vishnu temples is the punnai-tree with the naked Gōpis standing round it and begging for the return of their clothes (fig. 30).

Pārtha-
Sārathi.After leaving Brindāvana, Krishna became the clever and astute statesman and warrior of Dvārakā and took an active part in the war between Kauravas and Pāndavas described in the Mahābhārata. He was on the side of the Pāndavas; he was an intimate friend of Arjuna (or Pārtha) and even served him as his charioteer on the battle-field. Hence Krishna is also known by the name of Pārthasārathi, the name of the god in the famous temple at Triplicane. It was on this occasion in the battle-field, when Arjuna was dismayed at the prospect of a bloody war with his relatives, that the divine charioteer Krishna is said to have delivered to Arjuna the famous discourse known as the Bhagavad-Gitā. A fine illustration of the scene comes from the Kēsavasvāmin temple at Pushpagiri (fig. 31). The story runs that Arjuna and Krishna were bosom friends in far earlier ages, when under the names Nara and Narāyana they are supposed to have performed penance in Badarikāsrama.

VIII

Buddha
and Kalki
incarnations.Two other avatārs of Vishnu, viz., Buddha and Kalki may be noticed. The latter is only a prospective incarnation in which the god is expected to appear as a powerful hero riding on horse-back, sword in hand, to suppress the growing wickedness of the Mlēchchhas. The Buddha incarnation of Vishnu is, no doubt, counted among the ten avatārs but is rarely found worshipped in Hindu temples.^[18] Buddha is

Fig. 30.—Krishna on the punnai-tree (wood); Kumbhakonam.

Fig. 31.—Parthasarathi teaching the Bhagavad-Gita to Arjuna; Pushpagiri.

regarded by some as an avatar designed to lead the asuras into ruin by giving them bad advice. Others like Jayadēva regard him rightly as an incarnation of mercy who came to teach the people the essential cruelty of animal sacrifices.

IX

Other forms
of Vishnu not
included in
the avatārs.
Anantasā-
VIN,
Padmanābha
or Ranga-
nātha.Besides the avatārs mentioned above, there are other forms Vishnu which are also often found in South-Indian temples. The most important of such is his reclining form, known by names Anantasāyin (or Sēshasāyin), Padmanābha and Ranganātha.^[19] The temples at Srīrangam and Trivandrum may be specially mentioned as the places where this form of Vishnu is worshipped. In Tamil he is known as Palligondān. A good illustration (fig. 32) comes from the old sculptures at Mahābalipuram. In the so-called Mahishāsura-mandapa, on the proper right wall of the front verandah is depicted the scene under reference. Here on the coils of the serpent Ananta sleeps on his back a gigantic figure of Vishnu with two arms. The right hand is carelessly thrown on the body of the serpent while the left hand is raised up at the elbow. The god wears a cloth round the waist, which reaches down to the feet. The usual udarabandhana is also tied round the lower part of the stomach in the form of a girdle, its ends gracefully hanging down and touching the right side of the serpent couch. The garland round the neck (i.e., the vanamālā) has slipped down the right arm of the god, thus emphasizing his sleeping posture. By the side of the serpent couch, near the feet of Vishnu, is the figure of Lakshmi kneeling down and worshipping him with folded hands. In front of her are two other figures also seated by the side of the serpent couch. These may be the two colleagues of Vishnu, viz., Brahmā and Siva, or the attendants Jaya and Vijaya. Above the sleeping god in the air are two flying figures, one a female and the other a fat figure, probably a goblin. Beyond his feet and looking him straight in the face are two stalwart figures standing one in a defiant attitude with a club in his hand and the other dissuading him from what looks apparently like a murderous attack on the god. The Padma-Purāna gives a

Fig. 32.—Anantasayin; Seven Pagodas.

description of Vishnu, which comes very near to what has been depicted above- It says : " The god of gods sleeps on the serpent. One of his legs lies on the thigh of Lakshmī, while the other is placed on the body of the serpent. He has two hands, one of which is stretched along the right thigh and the other is placed over his head. Brahmā is comfortably seated on the lotus which springs from the navel of Vishnu. Entangled in the stem of the lotus stand the demons Madhu and Kaitabha. The symbols of the god, viz., the conch, discus, club and lotus are all represented about him, each assuming a body."^[20] A similar description is given by Hēmādri under the Jalasayana.term Jalasayana.

Vaikuntha-
Nārāyana.God Vishnu seated comfortably on the serpent couch is Vaikuntha-Nārāyana^[21] (fig. 33). The left leg is stretched down and the right is bent at the knee ; the left hand rests on the knee-joint, while the right hand rests carelessly thrown back on the head of the serpent ; the two back hands hold the weapons sankha and chakra. The image is decorated with jewels and by its side are his consorts Lakshmī and Prithvī.

Lakshmī-
Nārāyana.Lakshmī-Nārāyana is another of Vishnu's seated forms where, to the left of the god, by his side or sometimes on his thigh, is found seated the image of Lakshmī throwing her right hand round the neck of the god while she holds in her left a lotus. The left hand of Vishnu similarly passes round the waist of Lakshmī. A female deity called Siddhi stands near, with a fly-whisk in her hand. The vehicle Garuda is on the right side at the foot of the god. The sankha and chakra not being held by the god are carried by two dwarf male figures standing in front of him ; Brahmā and Siva also stand by, worshipping Vishnu with folded hands^[22] (fig. 34).

Fig. 33.—Vaikuntha-Narayana; Namakkal.

Fig. 34.—Lakshmi-Narayana; Namakkal.

Garuda
Nārāyana.The Silpasāra mentions an image called Garuda-Nārāyana wherein Vishnu is seen riding on Garuda, holding a bow and arrow, conch and discus. An illustration from Chidambaram (fig. 35), which is mutilated, is apparently one of Garuda-Nārāyana. On a pillar in the Rāmasvāmin temple at Kumba-kōnam is a fine representation of this form of Vishnu in the attitude of blessing the elephant gajēndra) after rescuing it from the attack of a crocodile. Gajēndra-
Mōksha.The scene is generally known as Gajēndra-mōksha (fig. 36).

Yōgēsvara-
Vishnu.Figures of Vishnu, with four arms seated in a meditative posture, are probably those of Yōgēsvara-Vishnu, described by Hēmādri as seated on a lotus, with eyes half-closed and directed towards the tip of the nose. An image (fig. 37) from the ruined Vishnu temple at Hūvinahadagalli (Bellary district) illustrates this form. Another image, probably of this same form of Vishnu but seated on the serpent couch, comes from Kumbakōnam (fig. 38). Here the god is bathed by two goddesses with pots in their hands.

Twenty-four
general forms
of standing
Vishnu.The twenty-four well-known names of Vishnu repeated by the Brāhmanas in their daily prayer known as sandhyāvandana, are represented each by a standing figure of the god with four hands holding the four symbols sankha (conch), chakra (discus), gada (club) and padma (lotus), in different combinations. Consequently we may often find in Vishnu temples images named Trivikrama, Vāmana, Padmanābha, Narasimha or Krishna represented as plain standing figures of Vishnu, without reference to any of the Purānic scenes connected with these gods. Four of the above mentioned twenty- four forms, viz., Vāsudēva, Sankarshana, Pradyumna and Aniruddha are sometimes represented by different weapons.

Pānduranga
or Vitōbha.The two illustrations in the accompanying plates (figs. 39 and 40) show another form of standing Vishnu, known as Pānduranga or Vithōba. The characteristic feature of the image is that it has two arms which, being bent at the elbow, are placed on its hips. A poem in praise of this form of Vishnu, entitled Pāndurangāshtaka, is attributed to Sankarāchārya of about the eighth century A.D.

Hayagriva.Hayagrlva is still another form of standing Vishnu, represented with the head of a horse. Hēmādri describes him as having a white complexion, and placing his feet on the hands of the goddess Earth. He has eight hands, in four of which are held the Vaishnavite symbols conch, discus, club and lotus. With the others he carries the four Vēdas personified. The Pāncharātrāgama mentions only four hands in which are seen the conch, rosary, book and the jnāna-mudrā.

Fig. 35.—Garuda-Narayana; Chidambaram.

Fig. 36.—Garuda-Narayana and Gajendra-moksha; Kumbakonam.

Fig. 37.—Yogesvara-Vishnu; Huvinahadagalli.

Fig. 38.—Yogesvara-Vishnu (?); Kumbakonam.

Fig. 39.—Panduranga; Tirupati.

Fig. 40.—Panduranga; Ahobalam.

VenkatēsaVenkatēsa or Venkataramana (also called Srinivāsa) is a name of Vishnu applied to the god on the Tirupati Hill. He is in form like one of the twenty-four images of Vishnu described above.^[23]

X

Pradyumna,
Kāmadēva or,
Manmatha. Pradyumna, which is mentioned among the twenty-four general names of Vishnu, occurs in the Sanskrit lexicon Amarakōsa as a synonym of the god Kāmadēva or Manmatha,who is recognized as a son of Krishna- Vishnu. His consort is ' Love ' (Rati). This god of Love was reduced to ashes by Siva. His form that was thus destroyed is still alive but is visible only to Rati. The metaphysical meaning of the story is more or less clear- Rati and Manmatha are often found among the sculptures in a temple. The latter is represented as a graceful youth of unparalleled elegance. He has eight hands in four of which he holds the conch, lotus, bow and arrow. The four other arms embrace his four beautiful wives called Rati (love), Priti (pleasure), Sakti (power) and Bhēda-Sakti (jealousy). Kāma has five arrows, each arrow being a fragrant flower; the crocodile (makara) is his banner. More often he is represented with two hands, riding on a chariot (or a parrot) with his chief queen Rati by his side (fig. 41). Vasanta, the Spring, is his intimate friend and ally. His five arrows are the flowers of lotus, asōka, mango, jasmine, and blue-lily ; and he shoots them with his graceful bow of sugarcane. Mayamata says that Manmatha's arrows are made of the cruel teeth of women and are called tāpani, "the tormentor," dāhini "the consumer' sarvamōhini "that which completely infatuates," visva-mardini " the all-destroyer " and mārani " the killer."

XI

Vish-
Vaksēna Vishvaksena, a synonym for Vishnu also found in the lexicon Amarakdsa, is recognized as a Vaishnava god who, like Ganesa of the Saivas (described below), is worshipped by the SrI-Vaishnavas, at the beginning of every ceremony in order to avoid obstacles. He has his face turned towards the south and is a guardian deity in Vishnu temples. In three of his hands he holds the usual Vaishnavite symbols, viz., the conch,

Fig. 41.—Rati-Manmatha; Chidambaram.

discus and the club and in the fourth exhibits the threatening finger-pose called tarjani. He is seated with his right leg hanging down from the pedestal and the left bent crosswise and placed on the same [fig. 160 (c), below].

Garuda.Vishnu's vehicle Garuda is installed in every Vaishnavite temple right opposite to the central shrine and is a standing human figure of stone or mortar, with a beak-shaped nose and with spreading wings proceeding from his back on either side. He has his two arms folded over the breast in a worshipping posture (fig. 42).^[24] When made into a processional image of metal, Garuda is represented as kneeling on the left knee, the right foot being firmly placed on the ground and a serpent decorating his head.^[25]

XII

Hanumān.Hanumān, the monkey-god, has been already referred to as a great devotee of Vishnu intimately connected with the incarnation Rāma-avatār. In Southern India he is very popular, even insignificant villages containing a shrine for Hanumān. He is represented in two postures.^[26] When included in the group of Rāma, Lakshmana and Sitā, he stands at a distance on one side, or opposite to them, in a humble and devotional attitude, with the two hands folded together, the tail hanging down close to his feet. ^[27]In shrines exclusively

Fig. 42.—Garuda, Tanjore.

dedicated to him he is always the heroic Hanumān, who, on seeing his beloved masters Rāma and Lakshmana faint with fatigue on the battle field of Lankā, flew in an amazingly short time to the Himalayas and, uprooting a whole hill containing drugs that have power to raise a dead man to life, returned to revive Rāma and Lakshmana and with them also the millions of dead monkeys. His heroism, strength and devotion are always admired and the one aim of sculptors in cutting a figure of Hanumān is to give effect to these three special characteristics. No wonder that even the Muhammadans (or, rather Muhammadan converts of later ages) who set high value on physical strength and individual heroism came to appreciate the story of Hānuman and to erect shrines for him. There is inscriptional evidence to prove that in the Ceded districts, where the Muhammadan influence has been very strong, certain classes of Mussalmans are still devoted to this heroic servant of Rāma. This must also have been the object of Chiefs in erecting shrines for Hanumān at the gates of their forts, viz., to infuse into the hearts of their fighting men the spirit of loyal attachment to their masters and indomitable heroism. Sometimes Hanumān may also be represented with hands showing the abhaya and the varada postures.

XIII

Sudarsana.Of the Vaishnava symbols and weapons referred to in the previous paragraphs as being sometimes personified, the discus (chakra) under the name Sudarsana deserves special mention, it being separately worshipped in the Sri-vaishnava temples under the name Chakra-Perumāl (figs. 43 and 44). The Silpasāra describes Sudarsana to be brilliant as fire, with sixteen arms holding the weapons conch, discus, bow, axe, sword, arrow, trident, noose, goad, lotus, thunderbolt, shield, plough, pestle, club and spear. The figure has protruding teeth, fiery hair and three eyes. It is fully decorated and stands in front of a shatkōna or hexagon. Dancing thus amidst the flames of the discus, the Sudarsana is supposed to kill all enemies. Sometimes the image may be represented with eight or four arms holding the discus in all of them.

Mr. Longhurst has supplied two other photographs (fig. 45) in the first of which Sudarsana appears to be similar in all details to the Tirupati figure No. 43, but has at the back of it an equilateral triangle within which is the seated figure of Nrisimha in the yogāsana attitude (see above, fig. 19) with flames of fire proceeding from his crown, This form of Nrisimha is

Fig. 43.—Sudarsana; Tirupati.

Fig. 44.—Sudarsana, back view; Tirupati.

Fig. 45.—Sudarsana, front and back view (metal); Dadikkombu.

evidently what is popularly known as Jvāla-Nrisimha " the fiery Nrisimha." It may be noted that the famous Chakrapāni temple at Kumbakōnam is dedicated to the discus Sudarsana of Vishnu.

XIV

Sāligrāma
stones.Apart from the various forms of Vishnu detailed above, every Hindu worships certain formless stones, called Sāligrāma, as these more satisfactorily answer to the idea of the formless Brahman. The Sāligrāma stones are generally picked up from the bed of the river Gandakī (in North Bihar) or are made of a particular kind of stone procurable at Dvārakā. The former are perfectly smooth and rounded pebbles and are heavier than ordinary stones. The belief is that within them is found gold or other heavy metal. The Sāligrāma stones are believed to possess certain mystic and sacred virtues. In the country of Avantī, at the foot of the sacred hill known as Hariparvata, is stated to be a big pond called Chakratīrtha, from which flows the river Gandakī. On rare and auspicious occasions, within this pond, are produced the Sāligrāma stones, which, after remaining for 1,000 years in water, become the abode of Vishnu, who then assuming the form of a brilliant little insect called vajrakita enters into them and bores a hole with his mouth, forming therein a discus (chakra) of numerous varieties. The stones are of many colours and sizes and are distinguished by these chakras to represent either Vāsudēva (white colour), Hiranyagarbha (blue), Pradyumna (red), Vishnu (black), Srī-Nārāyana (dark-green), Narasimha (tawny), or Vāmana (deep-blue). Eighty-nine varieties are recognized, each bearing a different name of Vishnu. One well-known test of their suitability for worship consists in placing them in milk or in rice, when, a genuine Sāligrāma is supposed to increase in size and in weight. A strange feature about these stones is that, while they mostly represent the forms of Vishnu, some are stated to be also forms of Siva, Sakti, Sūrya (Sun), Ganapati and the Planets. The Sāligrāmas are never fixed on pedestals as the lingas of Siva (see below, p. 72) or as the images of other gods. In many of the South-Indian temples of Vishnu, garlands of Sāligrāma stones are hung round the necks of images. Sāligrāma forms the most important object of daily worship in every orthodox Brāhmana's house in Southern India. The water poured over it is most holy and like the Ganges water which Brāhmanas generally preserve in their homes in sealed vessels, is offered to the dying man in order that his soul may become pure and depart in peace. The gift of Sāligrāma stones to Brāhmanas is considered one of the most meritorious acts and is as highly prized as the presentation of gold itself. Strictly religious people never sell or purchase Sāligrāmas but only acquire them by gift or by transfer. Of the sectarian Vaishnavas of the South, viz., the Srī-Vaishnavas and the Mādhvas, the latter show greater respect to the Sāligrāma stones than even for sculptured images of Vishnu.

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1. This figure shows, however, four more hands holding a bow and arrow and a sword and shield.
2. For a description of these goddesses, see below, p. 187. The Pāncharātrāgama mentions also the goddess Nīlādēvi and describes her as seated with four hands in two of which she holds lotus flowers.
3. Parasurāma, " the axe-barer, Rāma" is supposed to be the founder of the west-coast country, having miraculously reclaimed it from the encroaching sea. He is, therefore, often worshipped in Malabar in special shrines dedicated to him. Siva temples with the name Parasurāmēsvara are common and these are believed to owe their existence to Parasurāma. In the Kachchhapēsvara temple at Conjeeveram, on a stone set up under a tree, there is a representation of the Tortoise incarnation of Vishnu, worshipping Siva. This is reproduced by Mr. Rea in his Madras Archaeological Survey Report for 1910-1;, Plate V, fig. i.
4. The Brāhmiya-Silpa states that Lakshmi (i.e. Sri) is also to be depicted on the side of Varāha.
5. See also Visvakarma, Part VI, No. 99.
6. A detailed description of the images in the rock-cut temples at Namakkal is given in the Madras Epigraphical Report for 1906, Part IT. pp. 75 and 76.
7. There is ialso a panel in the rock-cut temple at Namakka 1 , representing Trivikrama with more details.
8. Evidently Tumburu with drum in hand, leading the hosts of gods. Mr. Venkayya takes the same figure in the Nāmakkal rock-cut temples to be Jāmbavat; see Madras Epigraphical Report for 1906, p. 76.
9. This is the description of Vamana as given in the Pāncharātrāgma.
10. For example, in the Hazāra-Rāmasvāmin temple at Hampi ; in the Rāmasvāmin temple at Kumbakōnam ; and in the Tennapuram temple at Chandragiri, Chittoor district. 3-A
11. This conception of Rāma is perhaps to be traced to the fact that in the work called Vāsishthārāmayana, Rāma is stated to have given lessons in philosophy to his family priest Vasishtha. The story of the Rāmāyana as described by the poet Vālmīiki, is said to be referred to in the Mantra of the Rig- Vēda, beginning with the words bhadrō bhadrayā, etc. The explanatory comment (nirukta) is, however, not included in Yāska's Nirukta. The historical development of Rāma and Krishna cults have been fully dealt with by Dr. R. G. Bhandarkar in his Vaishnavism, Saivism, etc.
12. The verse which is usually quoted in connexion with the ten avatārs of Vishnu, mentions Balarāma or Haladhara " the bearer of the plough," as the incarnation which came next after the epic hero Rāma. Krishna, the younger brother of Balarāma, being, however, considered to be Vishnu himself, receives divine honours in preference to Balarāma. The famous temple at Pūri-Jagannāth contains figures of Balarāma and Krishna with their sister Subhadrā standing between them.
13. The name given to this figure in the Silparatna is Santāna-Gōpāla, already referred to. Krishna under this designation is described as a young playful baby decorated with the jewels of children, holding fresh butter in his hand and surrounded by Gōpī-women. He wears also a necklace with a pair of tiger's claws decorating it. A variety of this same Krishna is sometimes represented to be riding on a chariot and to have four arms in two of which are seen the Vaishnava symbols sankha and chakra.
14. Krishnarāya, the well known Vijayanagara king of the sixteenth century A.D., is stated to have installed in the Krishnasvāmin temple near Hampi, an image of Bāla-Krishna which he had brought as a trophy from Udayagiri (Nellore district) and to have given many ornaments and villages to it.
15. The Brāhmiya-Silpa refers to the dance of Krishna called Navamita-nritta " the butter-dance " in which the god bends his legs and dances stretching out one of his arms.
16. At Turaiyur in the Trichinopoly district the god worshipped in the shrine has only two hands. Hēmādri states that the image of Gōpāla playing on the flute is made with the head ornament of peacock feathers, blue body and two arms. The Silpasangraha adds that he is chiefly found in a standing attitude.
17. Dr. Vogel says that the central figure of the group is Balarāma (Baladēva), the brother of Krishna (Archaeological Survey Report for 1910-11, p. 51, note I). He is seen throwing his left hand round the neck of a cow-herd boy who rests his hands crossed on the head of a long hatchet.
18. The Brāhmiya-Silpa does not include Buddha in the avatārs of Vishnu.It mentions Krishna in the place of Buddha. The Mānasāra gives a complete description of the figures of Buddha which it says must be made of white stone, very much like the images of Jina (below, p. 262f.) seated or standing on a lion-pedestal under the pipal or the wish-giving celestial tree, with two hands, ushnisha(crown)a yellow cloth, broad forehead, long ear-lobes, big eyes, high nose, smiling countenance, long arms, broad chest, fleshy limbs and body. When standing, his arms must be made to hang down loosely.
19. The Mayamata says that the serpent, the couch of Anantasayana, may be of five or seven hoods, its while colour indicating great bliss. Padmanābha means " he of the lotus- navel "; and we see, in figures of Anantasayana, the navel of the god sending forth a stock at the end of which is a lotus flower and in it the four-faced Brahmā. Ranganātha is " the lord of the ranga, the assembly-hall." It might be noted that in the illustrations of Anantasayana the central figure of Vishnu is surrounded by all the other gods as if in an assembly-hall.
20. Vāsudēva described by Hēmādri as a standing Vishnu figure of four arms, holds in the two upper hands the lotus and the conch and instead of having in the two lower, the weapons chakra (discus) and gadā (club), he places the palms of these hands on the heads of two dwarf figures, one male and one female, holding chauris in their hands and looking at the face of the god These dwarf figures are stated to be the personified weapons chakra and gadā; (see Mayūrabhanja fig. 16, on plate facing p. xl). The descriptions given by the same author of Sankarshana, Pradyumna and Aniruddha-other standing forms of Vishnu-refer also to personified weapons.
21. See the Madras Epigraphical Report for 1906, p. 76. The Brāhmtya-Silpa calls this same figure Ādimūrti and describes him as being attended by gods and rishis in a worshipping attitude.
22. Hēmādri. According to the Silpasangraha, Lakshmī-Nārāyana has four arms in which he displays the conch and the discus and the protecting and the boon-giving postures. Mr. Rea portrays a fine picture of Lakshmī-Nārāyana from Nilagunda (Bellary district) on Plate LIII of his Chalukyan Architecture.
23. It is believed, and perhaps on reasonable grounds, that the image on the Tirupati Hill is a combined form of Vishnu and Siva.The name Vrisha-saila, i.e., " Bull-hill " applied to the mountain on which the temple is situated, indicates also the Saiva nature of the god. In later times, the name Sēsha-saila "the hill of the serpent god Sēsha" came to be applied to it.
24. 1 According to the Silparatna, Garuda figures may also be shown with the two hands pointing the abhaya and the varada postures. Occasionally, Garuda may be made to carry in his right hand a pot of nectar. This is evidently a reference to the story that Garuda while young carried away from Indra the pot of nectar, in order to fulfil his mother's promise to Kadru, the mother of serpents.
25. The Silpasangraha describes a form of Garuda who has fierce protruding teeth and eight arms in six of which he has the conch, discus, club, lotus and the nectar-pot while the others are stretched out to receive the feet of the Lord (Vishnu). It is further stated that the eight lords of serpents are worn as jewels by him, thus showing that Garuda had completely subdued the Nāgas. Garuda when represented with four arms is called Vainatēya. It may be noted that the bird Garuda is of Vēdic fame, his body being supposed to be completely made up of the Vēdas. A Vēdic sacrifice called Garuda-chayana is performed by offering oblations to the gods on a platform built in the shape of Garuda. Vishnu is sometimes known as Yajna-purusha the personified god of sacrifice.
26. The Silparatna mentions a third posture in which Hanumān is described as a yōgin, teaching philosophy to a number of pupils who surround him.
27. See above, fig. 23. Here, at the right end of the picture Hanumān is seen in a submissive attitude while another figure of his at the left end, carries in both hands two Sia.-lingas which Rāma had ordered him to bring for establishing at Rāmēsvaram, on his way back from Lankā. Visvakarma, Part VI, Plate 100, also gives a metallic figure of Hanumān from Ceylon, with his hands stretched out, indicating evidently a mixed feeling of wonder and despair.