The Chinese Repository/Volume 1/Number 2/Possessions of the Reigning Chinese Dynasty

REVIEWS.

 

Ta-tsing Wan-neen Yih-tung King-wei Yu-too,—"A general geographical map, with degrees of latitude and longitude, of the Empire of the Ta-tsing Dynasty—may it last for ever." By Le Ming-che Tsing-lae.

The vast dominions of the Mantchou-Chinese, comprising many kingdoms, formerly distinct and independent, which, long ere Europe had emerged from the darkness and ignorance of the middle ages, were far advanced in civilization and the arts, present a wide field for the researches of the geographer, the virtuoso, or the grammarian. It is in the first of these characters, that we will now endeavour to trace, on the map before us, the boundaries and divisions of this great and most ancient Empire, Thanks to the labours of the Catholic missionaries, who preceded us at a time when more liberty was granted to the "sons of the Western Ocean," and to whom the Chinese are indebted for whatever systematic knowledge of geography they possess, our task is comparatively easy. In the present confined situation of foreigners in China, we can be expected to add but little to the geographical information already within reach of the scholars of Europe and America. Our object is simply to place in the hands of our readers, in an English dress, that knowledge which now lies almost concealed, in the ponderous folios and quartos of France, or in the multitudinous volumes of bare compilation, to which the present talent of China is confined.

Le-Ming-che, more generally called Le-Tsing-lae, author of the map of which the title is given at the head of this article, is a priest of the Taou sect, and a native of Canton. His astronomical and geographical studies were prosecuted for some years, we have understood, under an European residing in the interior of China; and the fruit of them has been given to the world in a treatise on those sciences, first published in 1820, in three volumes, which have been since increased to five. He was also, we believe, chiefly employed in compiling the maps for the Kwangtung Tung-che, or general statistical account of Kwangtung province,—a large and voluminous work, which was published in 1822, under the direction of Yuen-yuen, formerly many years Governor at Canton, and a patron of our author. Le-Tsing-lae, who, from his works, appears to possess considerable talent, and a mind superior to the generality of his countrymen, is now residing in a sequestered country place, a few miles from Canton.

The map before us was published, we think, in 1825 or 1826. It evinces, by the rough manner in which it is drawn up, the very partial advance made by the Chinese in the art of chorography. All that they know of the subject has been derived, indeed, from the Catholic missionaries; but they have followed the instructions of their barbarian teachers, only so far as they themselves thought proper. They have been taught by them the doctrine of the earth's globular form; the consequent system of spherical projection; the use of latitude and longitude, in order to ascertain the exact situation of places; and the method of finding the same by observation and calculation. These have been adopted by the Chinese, and with very great advantage. But devoid of all neatness of execution, their maps present a rough, unfinished appearance; the coasts are badly described, and afford no guide to the navigator; islands are crowded together,—a large number being roughly supplied by only three or four, of a size wholly disproportionate to their real extent,—or they are entirely omitted. Very little regard is paid to the relative distances of places, so that a town, situated on the bank of a river, may be placed, on paper, at a distance from it of several miles. And the courses of rivers, however small they may actually be, are invariably described by two lines, at some distance from each other, thereby so crowding the map, as to leave little room for names of places, which in Chinese characters occupy considerable space. Yet, notwithstanding all these disadvantages, the map before us is of value, in as much as it affords a very complete outline of the Chinese Empire, on a large scale; and as a native work, is inferior only to a valuable MS. atlas, contained in the Chinese library of the Honorable Company, at Canton. The explanatory and descriptive observations which fill up the unoccupied corners, are useful, and serve to enable the enquirer more readily to trace the several divisions of the Empire.

 

The present possessions of China, or of the Mantchou-Chinese dynasty, far exceed the extent of the Empire under any previous reign. From the outer Hing-an-ling, or Daourian Mountains, on the north of Mantchou, to the southern point of the island of Hainan, the greatest breadth is about forty degrees. And the utmost length, from the wintry island of Saghalien, on the N. E., to the most western bend of the Belur chain, in Turkestan, is about seventy-seven degrees. These possessions, occupying so large a portion of Asia, and in extent inferior only to the vast dominions of Russia, may be classed under three principal divisions, viz;

I. China Proper, or the Empire as it existed under the Ming dynasty, which ruled in China from 1368 until the Mantchou conquest, in 1644.

II. Mantchou, or, as it has been latinized, Mantchouria, the native country of the reigning dynasty; and

III. The Colonial possessions of China, in Mongolia, Soungaria, and East Turkestan, to which may be added Thibet, and the several tribes bordering on Szechuen and Kansuh.

 

China Proper is the largest, and in every respect the most important of these three divisions. Its name China, used among foreigners, seems derived from Tsin, the name borne by the first dynasty that obtained universal dominion over the various kingdoms of which China was formerly composed. It was, probably, when Tonquin, Cochinchina, and the neighbouring countries were subdued, and forcibly colonized, by the arms of this dynasty, that the name was spread throughout the Indo-chinese nations, and thence found its way over India and Persia, to the countries of the west. This supposition, respecting the derivation of the name China, is rendered more probable, from the fact that, while, from time immemorial, the country has been called Chung-kwo, 'the middle country,' it has also received, under each succeeding age, the name of the dynasty then reigning. And, though among the Chinese the name of Tsin has not, like the more glorious and less tainted names of Han and Tang, been adopted by the people as their own perpetual designation; yet, having once obtained circulation among the surrounding countries, by the splendid victories of its founder, it would not, with them, be so readily lost as China.

 

China is situated between 18 and 41 degrees N. lat., and between about 98 and 123 degrees lon. E. from Greenwich. Its estimated extent is about 1,298,000 squares miles, while the estimate for the whole Empire is 3,010,400, or something more than the total extent of Europe. The northern boundary of China is the Great Wall, by which it is separated, on that side from the desert lands of the Mongol tribes, and from the scarcely less dreary country of the Mantchous; on the east, the gulf of Pechelee, (called in Chinese Puh-hae), the Eastern ocean, and the Formosa channel wash the rocky coast, and receive the waters of several large rivers; on the south, the China sea is thickly studded with barren islands, the resort of desperate pirates; and on the west, several barbarous frontier tribes stand between the ancient Empires of China and Thibet; while the south-western provinces are conterminous with the foreign kingdoms of Tonquin, Cochinchina, Burmah, and the half-conquered Laos.

 

Divisions. The whole country is divided into eighteen provinces, which are usually arranged by the Chinese in the following order;—Chihle, Shantung, Shanse, and Honan, on the north; Keangsoo, Ganhwuy, Keangse, Chekeang, and Fuhkeen, on the east; Hoopih, and Hoonan, in the middle; Shense, Kansuh, and Szechuen on the west; and Kwangtung, Kwangse, Yunnan, and Kweichow, on the south. Of the above provinces, Keangsoo and Ganhwuy were formerly united under the name of Keangnan; Hoopih and Hoonan were together denominated Hookwang; and Kansuh formed part of the province Shense. Under the present dynasty, these have been separated. Other provinces have been greatly increased in extent:—Kansuh has been made to stretch far out, beyond the limits of China proper,—across the desert of Cobi, to the confines of Soungaria, on the N. W., and to the borders of Thibet, on the west; Szechuen, already the largest province of the Empire, has extended its government over the tribes commonly called Sifan and Tufan, lying between that province and Thibet; and Fuhkeen has long included within its boundaries part of the fertile island of Formosa. These and other changes, in the divisions of the country, accompanied by the active, emigrating spirit of the people, which in a few years renders these newly attached colonies wholly Chinese, must soon require a change of the European designation and limits of "China proper."

 

The Coast of China is in general bluff and rocky; the chief exception being the southern part of Chihle, which, on the other hand, presents to the eye an almost unvaried sandy flat. Teen-tsin-Foo, on the Pih-ho, or White river, is the only port of this province, and is inacessible to vessels of heavy burden. Lighter vessels can enter the river, only by being towed over the sands which lie at its mouth.—The promontory of Shantung is equally inaccessible, from its ruggedness. It possesses but a few good harbours, and many Chinese junks are annually dashed to pieces on its shores.—Keangsoo is easy of approach; but, though the two largest rivers of China, the Yellow river, and the Yang-tsze-keang, both disembogue themselves into the sea within its confines, yet it possesses but one good port, which is Shang-hae-Heen, near the frontiers of Chekeang. For, the Yellow River, in its rapid progress to the sea, carries along with it large quantities of sand and clay, which being lodged at a short distance from its mouth, form one of the worst dangers that coasting junks have to pass between Amoy and Teen-tsin. And the Yang-tsze-keang, stopped in its more gradual passage by rocks and islands which almost block up its entrance, creates, by the accumulation of sand, a bar insurmountable even to vessels of small burden.—The coasts of Chekeang and Fuhkeen, broken into numerous capes and promontories, and every where indented by bays and rivers, are throughout very rocky, with few sands or flats. The Chusan (or Chowshan) archipelago, near the northern extremity of Chekeang, is extensive, occupying a space of nearly 30 miles, and possessing many safe anchorages. The Formosa channel, between the main-land of Fuhkeen and the island of Taewan or Formosa, is dangerous and difficult of navigation. The western coast of that island is surrounded with rocks and quicksands, which render its fine harbours almost useless, except to junks of very small tonnage. The eastern parts, which are still possessed by the uncivilized aborigines, are in consequence little known.—The danger of the Canton coast consist rather in sands and flats, than in rocks; though the rugged islands which appear along its whole breadth are numerous. There are many good anchorages, for small vessels, and several safe harbours; but the island of Hainan, near the south-western extremity of the province, is surrounded, like Formosa, by many dangers, both from rocks and sands. The narrow strait which separates Hainan from the main-land is, probably, the place called by the Mohammedans of the 8th and 9th centuries 'the gates of China.'

 

Rivers. It is the glory of the Chinese that their country is richly watered, and that, by means of rivers, lakes, add canals, communication is rendered easy between all its provinces. Of all subjects of geopraphy, whatever relates to the rivers of the country, they consider as the most interesting, and consequently give it the greatest attention. Yet, for a very long period the source of the Yellow river remained unknown [to them, and comparatively modern Chinese writers have declared it impossible to ascertain its real origin. The Hwang-ho, or Yellow river, is the most celebrated river of China, though in extent it is inferior to the Yang-tsze-keang. It rises in the Sing-suh-hae, or sea of stars, in the Mongol district of Kokonor, which lies between Thibet and the province of Kansuh. Thence, it touches Szechuen, on its progress to Kansuh, through which it passes in a north-east direction to Shense. In Shense it takes a course more directly north, and passes out into the territories of the Ortous Mongols. But having approached the limits of the desert of Cobi, it returns in a southerly direction, and forms a boundary between the provinces of Shense and Shanse, till it reaches nearly the latitude of its source. It then turns eastward, and passes through Honan, Shantung, and Keangsoo, to the sea, which it reaches after a course of about 2000 miles.

The Yang-tsze-keang, or "child of the Ocean," which Europeans have erroneously denominated the Kian-ku and the Blue river, is otherwise called by the Chinese Ta-keang, the Great river. It rises in Tsing-hae or Kokonor, some degrees beyond the source of the Yellow river, which it passes, within the distance of 30 miles, on its way towards Szechuen. It is here called the Muhloosoo, but soon after entering Sze-chuen, it takes the name of Kin-sha, 'golden-sanded,' which it bears in its passage southward through Yunnan, and again north through those parts of Szechuen which are inhabited by subdued Meaou-tsze. It afterwards takes the well-known names Great river and Yang-tsze-keang, which it retains in its majestically rapid and serpentine course, through Szechuen, Hoopih, the northern extremity of Keang-se, Ganhwuy, and Keangsoo, to the sea. This river, from its almost central course, and the number of provinces through which it passes, has been termed 'the girdle of China,' and has given rise to the common expressions north of the river, south of the river, and beyond the river.^[1]

The river next in size to the Hwang-ho and Yang-tsze-keang, is the Se-keang or Western river, which rises in the mountains of Yunnan, and passing under various names through that province and the adjoining one of Kwangse, enters Kwangtung, where it unites with the Pih-keang, or Northern river, and with a minor stream, at San-shwuy, or 'the three streams,' a little to the west of Canton. A great number of small rivers and channels then carry its waters to the sea.—The Pih-ho, or Pei-ho, in Chihle province, is a river of some importance.—The Meinam kom, or river of Camboja, and the Sulween or Martaban river, both of which pass through China, are also worthy of mention. The former of these rises in Kokonor, not far from the source of the Yellow river, and passes under the names of Sa-tsoo and Lan-tsang, through Yunnan, into the country of the Laos, where it receives the name of Kew-lung. Thence it flows through Camboja, to the sea, at Mitho. The Sulween rises likewise in Kokonor, and passes under the names of Noo and Loo, through the province of Yunnan, whence it enters Burmah, and forms the boundary between that country and the Laos tribes, in its progress to the sea at Martaban.

Even among the tributaries of the two great rivers of China, many rivers may be found of considerable length, and some scarcely inferior to the largest rivers of Europe. At the head of these are the Han-shwuy, which, rising in the mountains between Shense and Kansuh, empties itself into the Yang-tszekeang, at Han-yang-Foo, in Hoopih,—and the Ya-lung-keang, which rises in Kokonor, and after running for some time nearly parallel with the Yang-tsze-keang, empties itself into that river on the borders of Szechuen and Kansuh. Many others of minor importance might be enumerated; but we leave them to be introduced in a more particular description of the several provinces of China.

 

The Grand Canal, in Chinese Yun-ho, or 'the Transit river,' is of much more importance to the inland trade than either of the two great rivers of China,^[2] It is cut through that vast plain, which extends from Peking, over the southern districts of Chihle, part of Shantung, and the whole breadth of Keangsoo, to Hang-chow-Foo, in Chekeang. This stupendous canal which was dug by command of one of the Emperors of the Mongol dynasty Yuen, at the close of the 13th or commencement of the 14th century, joins together the rivers Hwangho and Yang-tsze-keang, at a point near their mouths at which they are not above 100 miles apart. It does not, as seems implied in the description given of it by Grosier, and after him by Malte-Brun, extend from Peking to Canton; being but a portion of the almost wholly uninterrupted communication, which exists between those two places. Were it not that the Yangtsze-keang and the Che-keang meet other streams in the province of Keangse which conduct to the borders of Kwangtung, the work of communication would be but half completed by the Grand Canal; which could not have been cut with the same ease through the hilly regions of Chekeang, Keangse, and Kwangtung, as through the marshy plains of Keangsoo, or the sandy flats of Chihle.—There are many other minor canals throughout the Empire; but none of them are of any considerable note.

 

The Lakes of China are chiefly found in the central and eastern provinces,—along the majestic course of the Yang-tsze-keang, or spread over the level country of Keangsoo. The largest of these lakes are the Tung-ting-hoo, the Po-yang-hoo, the Tae-hoo, and the Hung-tsih-hoo. The Tung-ting-hoo, in Hoonan, is said to be 220 miles in circumference. It receives the waters of several southern rivers, which, rising in Kwangse and Kweichow, find their way through this lake to the Yang-tsze-keang. From the eastern side of the Tung-ting-hoo to the city of Woo-chang-Foo, over an area of about 200 miles east and west, by 80 north and south, the course of the Yang-tsze-keang lies between a great number of lakes almost touching one another; which circumstance gives to the provinces Hoopih and Hoonan their names, north and south of the lakes.—The Po-yang, in Keangse, is of less extent; but, like the Tung-ting, it receives four large rivers, and discharges their waters into the Yang-tsze-keang. The tides reach partially to this lake, though above 300 miles distant from the sea, and it is subject to severe tempests, which render its navigation dangerous. The scenery of the surrounding country is pleasing and romantic, the favourite seat of the Chinese poetic muse.—The Tae-hoo, though it is also connected with the Yang-tsze-keang, does not, like the two preceding lakes, discharge its waters into that river; on the contrary, it seems probable that the lake is chiefly supplied by the river, in its approach towards the sea. It is situated in the beautiful and well-watered plain which lies between the cities of Soo-chow-Foo in Keangsoo and Hang-chow-Foo in Chekeang,—a district considered by the Chinese as a perfect terrestrial paradise. The borders of the lake are skirted by very romantic scenery of hill and dale, and the broad expanse of water is broken by several hilly islets.—The Hung-tsih-hoo, in Keangsoo, is greatly inferior in beauty of scenery to the other lakes. It receives the waters of the Hwae river before entering the Hwang-ho; and is closely connected with so many lakes of smaller size, as to render the surrounding country the most marshy district in the Empire. The situation is near the junction of the Grand Canal and Yellow river, a place of considerable importance, owing both to its being a great thoroughfare, and to the large quantities of salt that arc obtained from the neighbouring marshes.—Besides these four principal lakes, there are also several large lakes in Chihle, Shantung, and Ganhwuy; and one or two of considerable extent in Yunnan.

 

Mountains. China is generally speaking a mountainous country. The only very flat Provinces are Chihle, Keangsoo, and part of Ganhwuy. Chihle is low and sandy; Keangsoo is almost an entire plain, intersected in every direction by rivers, lakes and canals; and Ganhwuy has but few mountains. The province of Keangse is adorned with many beautiful vallies. In China there are two principal chains of mountains, one in the S. E., the other in the N. W.—The south-eastern range extends in broken chains over the provinces of Yunnan and Kweichow: thence it stretches eastward, separating the provinces of Kwangse and Kwangtung (or Canton), on the south, from those of Keangse and Hoonan, on the north. From Kwangtung the chain takes a north-east direction, through Fuhkeen and part of Chekeang, in the latter of which it terminates.^[3] This range is difficult of access; and frequently surrounds elevated and comparatively level tracts of land, occupied from time immemorial, by an uncivilized but independant race of men, known under the general name of Meaoutsze. These people have their chief seats between Kwangse and Kweichow. Some are scattered over those two provinces, as well as over Yunnan and Szechuen; where they live peaceably, under the government of their own officers, subject to the control of the Chinese. Others range at liberty their native mountains, governed by princes, who are either of their own choosing, or are hereditary among them. Of the latter class is the tribe called Yaou-jin, occupying the hills between Kwangtung, Kwangse, and Hoonan, which has lately joined with secret associations of Chinese, to attack the surrounding country, and aim at the Imperial throne. The King of this tribe is named Le-tih-ming, and is now a mere youth, under 20 years of age.

The mountainous range in the north-west, Malte-Brun supposes to consist, not so much of regular chains, as of a succession of terraces or table-lands. These mountains first appear in Szechuen, whence they extend, in irregular ranges, over great part of the provinces of Kansuh and Shense, both on the north and south of the Yellow river. In Shense the chain divides; and one branch occupies the extensive plateau formed by the great northern bend of the Yellow river; while the other stretches eastward into Honan, till it again meets that river, after its return southward from Mongolia. The chain being here more broken and less elevated than in the other provinces, no obstacle is presented to the progress of that great river towards the sea; but on the north of it, the chain assumes a more regular appearance; and running up between the province of Shanse and Chihle, is met at its termination by a portion of the great wall. There is a considerable break between this part of the chain, and what is considered as the continuation of it in Mongolia.

 

Of the south-eastern range of mountains, the Meiling, celebrated for the road cut over it, between the provinces of Kwangtung and Keangse, has alone been examined by Europeans. Its prevailing rocks appear to be gneiss and quartz. The western parts of the chain, in Kwangse, Yunnan, and Kweichow are, probably, richer in minerals than any other portion of China. They possess gold, silver, iron, tin, and copper mines, in many places; also cornelians, jasper, rubies, and beautiful marbles in Yunnan. Gold and silver exist, likewise, to some extent, in Szechuen, Kwangtung, and Keangse; and to a smaller extent in Hoopih and Fuhkeen. Iron and lead are found more or less in all the southern provinces. Mercury is obtained, chiefly in Szechuen and Kweichow. And there are a few coal-mines in Kwangtung.—The mountains of the north appear to be less abundant in minerals; but iron and tin are obtained to a small amount in most provinces. The Yuh stone or jade is found in Shense, Shanse, and Honan; the cornelian in Chihle. There are marble quarries, in Ganhwuy, Shantung, and Shanse; and there are extensive coal pits, in the southern portion of Chihle, in Shan-se, and also, to a very limited extent, in Shantung, Keangsoo, and Honan.

We have thus given a slight sketch of 'the middle country,' or what is commonly called China Proper. We shall next proceed to describe Mantchouria; and afterwards the colonial possessions of China. If we are found frequentyl to differ from more able geographers, it must be remembered that the subject is little known even to the best-informed Europeans; and that we have therefore followed Chinese in preference to foreign authorities.

(to be concluded in the next number.)

 

1. The last of these expressions is very commonly applied to north-country men, but the other two are not now often heard.
2. The Yellow river, which by its frequent innundations appears to be more injurious than useful to the country, cannot, in consequence of its very rapid course, be at all navigated; and even to cross from one side of it to another, is frequently attended with difficulty and danger. On the Yang-tsze-keang trade is far more practicable, and is carried on to considerable extent; but strong and protracted ebb tides with short floods, render the navigation of it also difficult.
3. Malte-Brun, whose variety of collected matter respecting China we have found very useful, though blended also with a large portion of error, says that this chain is called the Mangian from Mangi the name of southern China. The words here meant, we suppose to be Man-e, southern barbarians, a term which might have been still sometimes used by the proud Mongols, in the time of Marco Polo (who first spoke of the Manji); but which has been long since disused in this country, and applied only to the inhabitants of the Indian archipelago.