The History of Slavery and the Slave Trade/Chapter 13
CHAPTER XIII.
Movements in England to Abolish the Slave Trade.
The historian of the Abolition of the Slave Trade by the British Parliament was Mr. Thomas Clarkson. He was among the warmest supporters of the sacred cause, and from the year 1785 he devoted his life to it. The various measures pursued to promote it, were registered at the time, either by himself or the committee with whom he acted. Not the shadow of a doubt has ever been expressed as to the authenticity of his work, and we cannot present information on this subject in a more satisfactory manner than by giving the reader a concise abridgement of the work itself.
Besides Mr. Clarkson, there was another individual of whose mind the subject took a deep hold. This was William Wilberforce. In October, 1757, he entered upon his journal that "the Almighty had placed before him the great object of the abolition of the slave-trade." Clarkson and Wilberforce, the twin spirits of the movement, were soon able to form a powerful confederacy, including men of all parties, and to impress the mind of the nation.
Dr. Peckard, master of Magdalen College, in the University of Cambridge, had not only censured the slave-trade in the severest manner, in a sermon preached before the University, but when he became vice-chancellor of it, in 1785, he gave out the following subject for one of the Latin dissertations: "Is it right to make slaves of others against their will?" At this time Mr. Clarkson, who had obtained the prize for the best essay the preceding year, determined to become again a candidate. He took prodigious pains to make himself master of the subject, as far as the time would allow, both by reading, and conversing with many persons who had been in Africa. Having completed his Latin essay, and sent it in to the vice-chancellor, he soon found himself honored with the first prize. The subject of the essay so entirely engrossed his thoughts that he became seriously affected. He tried to persuade himself that the contents of the essay were not true. The more, however, he reflected upon his authorities, the more he gave them credit, until he finally became convinced that it was the duty of some one to endeavor to mitigate the sufferings of the unhappy Africans. He finally resolved to devote his own life to the cause. When this resolution was formed he was but twenty-four years of age, and he considered his youth and want of knowledge of the world as a great obstacle. He thought, however, that there was one way in which he might begin to be useful; by translating his Latin essay, and publishing it in English.
Of this period of his life and labors he says: "In the course of the autumn of this year (1185), I walked frequently into the woods that I might think on the subject of the slave-trade in solitude. But there the question still occurred, 'Are these things true?' Still the answer followed as instantaneously, 'They are.' Still the result accompanied it, 'Then surely some person should interfere.' I then began to envy those who had seats in parliament, and who had great riches, and widely extended connexions, which would enable them to take up this cause. Finding scarcely any one at that time who thought of it, I was turned frequently to myself. But here many difficulties arose. It struck me, among others, that a young man of only twenty-four years of age could not have that solid judgment, or knowledge of men, manners, and things, which were requisite to qualify him to undertake a task of such magnitude and importance; and with whom was I to unite? I believed also that it looked so much like one of the feigned labors of Hercules, that my understanding would be suspected if I proposed it. On ruminating, however, on the subject, I found one thing at least practicable, and that this also was in my power. I could translate my Latin dissertation. I could enlarge it usefully. I could see how the public received it, or how far they were likely to favor any serious measures, which should have a tendency to produce the abolition of the slave-trade. Upon this, then, I determined; and in the middle of the month of November, 1185, I began my work. By the middle of January I had finished half of it, though I had made considerable additions. I now thought of engaging with some bookseller to print it when finished. For this purpose I called upon Mr. Cadell, in the Strand, and consulted him about it. He said that as the original essay had been honored by the University of Cambridge with the first prize, this circumstance would insure it a respectable circulation among persons of taste. I own I was not much pleased with his opinion. I wished the essay to find its way among useful people, and among such as would think and act with me. Accordingly I left Mr. Cadell, after having thanked him for his civility, and determined, as I thought I had time sufficient before dinner, to call upon a friend in the city. In going past the Royal Exchange, Mr. Joseph Hancock, one of the religious society of the Quakers, and with whose family my own had been long united in friendship, suddenly met me. lie first accosted me by saying that I was the person whom he was wishing to see. He then asked me why I had not published my prize essay. I asked him in return what had made him think of that subject in particular. He replied, that his own society had long taken it up as a religious body, and individuals among them were wishing to find me out. I asked him who. He answered, James Phillips, a bookseller, in George-yard, Lombard street, and William Pillwyn, of Walthamstow, and others. Having but little time to spare, I desired him to introduce me to one of them. In a few minutes he took me to James Phillips, who was then the only one of them in town, by whose conversation I was so much interested and encouraged, that without any ftrrther hesitation I offered him the publication of my work. This accidental introduction of me to James Phillips was, I found afterwards, a most happy circumstance for the promotion of the cause which I had then so deeply at heart, as it led me to the knowledge of several of those who became afterwards material coadjutors in it. It was also of great importance to me with respect to the work itself, for he possessed an acute penetration, a solid judgment, and a literary knowledge, which he proved by the many alterations and additions he proposed, and which I believe I uniformly adopted, after mature consideration, from a sense of their real value. It was advantageous to me also, inasmuch as it led me to his friendship, which was never interrupted but by his death.
"On my second visit to James Phillips, at which time I brought him about half my manuscript for the press, I desired him to introduce me to William Dillwyn, as he had also mentioned him to me on my first visit, and as I had not seen Mr. Hancock since. Matters were accordingly arranged, and a day appointed before I left him. On this day I had my first interview with my new friend. Two or three others of his own religious society were present, but who they were I do not now recollect. There seemed to be a great desire among them to know the motive by which I had been actuated in contending for the prize. I told them frankly that I had no motive but that which other young men in the University had on such occasions, namely, the wish of being distinguished, or of obtaining literary honor; but that I had felt so deeply on the subject of it, that I had lately interested myself in it from a motive of duty. My conduct seemed to be highly approved by those present, and much conversation ensued, but it was of a general nature.
"As William Dillwyn wished very much to see me at his house at Walthamstow, I appointed the thirteenth of March to spend the day with him there. We talked for the most part, during my stay, on the subject of my essay. I soon discovered the treasure I had met with in his local knowledge, both of the slave-trade and of slavery, as they existed in the United States, and I gained from him several facts, which, with his permission, I afterwards inserted in my work. But how surprised was I to hear, in the course of our conversation, of the labors of Granville Sharp, of the writings of Ramsay, and of the controversy in which the latter was engaged, of all which I had hitherto known nothing. How surprised was I to learn, that William Dillwyn himself had two years before associated himself with five others for the purpose of enlightening the public mind upon this great subject. How astonished was I to find that a society had been formed in America for the same object, with some of the principal members of which he was intimately acquainted. And how still more astonished at the inference which instantly rushed upon my mind, that he was capable of being made the great medium of connection between them all These thoughts almost overpowered me. I believe that after this I talked but little more to my friend. My mind was overwhelmed with the thought that I had been providentially directed to his house; that the finger of Providence was beginning to be discernible; that the day-star of African liberty was rising and that probably I might be permitted to become an humble instrument in promoting it.
"In the course of attending to my work, as now in the press, James Phillips introduced me also to Granville Sharp, with whom I had afterwards many interesting interviews from time to time, and whom I discovered to be a distant relation by my father's side. He introduced me also by letter to a correspondence with Mr. Ramsay, who in a short time afterwards came to London to see me. He introduced me also to his cousin, Richard Phillips, of Lincoln's Inn, who was at that time on the point of joining the religious society of the Quakers. In him I found much sympathy, and a willingness to cooperate with me. When dull and disconsolate, he encouraged me. When in spirits, he stimulated me further. Him I am now to mention as a new, but soon afterwards as an active and indefatigable coadjutor in the cause. I shall only now add that my work was at length printed; that it was entitled, An Essay on the Slavery and Commerce of the Human Species, particularly the African, translated from a Latin Dissertation, which was honored with the First Prize in the University of Cambridge, for the year 1185; with Additions; and that it was ushered into the world in the month of June, 1786, or in about a year after it had been read in the senate house in its first form.
"I had long had the honor of the friendship of Mr. Bennet Langton, and I determined to carry him one of my books, and to interest his feelings in it, with a view of procuring his assistance in the cause. Mr. Langton was a gentleman of an ancient family and respectable fortune, in Lincolnshire, but resided then in Queen's-square, Westminster. He was known as the friend of Dr. Johnson, Jonas Hanway, Edmund Burke, Sir Joshua Reynolds, and others. Among his acquaintance indeed were most of the literary, and eminent professional, and public-spirited men of the times. At court, also, he was well known, and had the esteem of his majesty, with whom he frequently conversed. His friends were numerous, also, in both houses of the legislature. As to himself, he was much noted for his learning, but most of all for the great example he gave with respect to the usefulness and integrity of his life. By introducing my work to the sanction of a friend of such high character and extensive connexions, I thought I should be doing great things. And so the event proved. For when I went to him after he had read it, I found that it had made a deep impression upon his mind. As a friend to humanity, he lamented over the miseries of the oppressed Africans, and over the crimes of their tyrants as a friend to morality and religion. He cautioned me, however, against being too sanguine in my expectations, as so many thousands were interested in continuing the trade. Justice, however, which he said weighed with him beyond all private or political interest, demanded a public inquiry, and he would assist me to the utmost of his power in my attempts towards it. From this time he became a zealous and active coadjutor in the cause, and continued so to the end of his valuable life.
"I had now Sir Charles Middleton, who was in the House of Commons. 1 was sure of Dr. Porteus, who was in the House of Lords. I could count upon Lord Scarsdale, who was a peer also. I had secured Mr. Langton, who had a most extensive acquaintance with members of both houses of the legislature. I had also secured Dr. Baker, who had similar connexions. I could depend upon Granville Sharp, James Phillips, Richard Phillips, Ramsay, Dillwyn, and the little committee to which he belonged, as well as the whole society of the Quakers. I thought, therefore, upon the whole, that, considering the short time I had been at work, I was well off with respect to support. I believed, also, that there were still several of my own acquaintance whom I could interest in the question, and I did not doubt that by exerting myself diligently, persons who were then strangers to me would be raised up in time. I considered next, that it was impossible for a great cause like this to be forwarded without large pecuniary funds. I questioned whether some thousand pounds would not be necessary, and from whence was such a sum to come? In answer to this, I persuaded myself that generous people would be found who would unite with me in contributing their mite towards the undertaking, and I seemed confident that as the Quakers had taken up the cause as a religious body, they would not be behind hand in supporting it. I considered lastly, that if I took up the question I must devote myself wholly to it. T was sensible that a little labor now and then would be inadequate to the purpose, or that where the interests of so many thousand persons were likely to be affected, constant exertion would be necessary. I felt certain that if ever the matter were to be taken up, there could be no hope of success, except it should be taken up by some one who would make it an object or business of his life. I thought, too, that a man's life might not be more than adequate to the accomplishment of the end. But I knew of no one who could devote such a portion of time to it. Sir Charles Middleton, though he was so warm and zealous, was greatly occupied in the discharge of his office. Mr. Langton spent a great portion of his time in the education of his children. Dr. Baker had a great deal to do in the performance of his parochial duty. The Quakers were almost all of them in trade. I could look, therefore, to no person but myself; and the question was, whether I was prepared to make the sacrifice. In favor of the undertaking I urged to myself, that never was any cause which had been taken up by man in any country, or in any age, so great and important; that never was there one in which so much misery was heard to cry for redress; that never was there one in which so much good could be done; never one in which the duty of Christian charity could be so extensively exercised; never one more worthy of the devotion of a whole life towards it; and that, if a man thought properly, he ought to rejoice to have been called into existence, if he were only permitted to become an instrument in forwarding it in any part of its progress. Against these sentiments on the other hand I had to urge, that I had been designed for the church; that I had already advanced as far as deacon's orders in it; that my prospects there on account of my connexions were then brilliant; that by appearing to desert my profession my family would be dissatisfied, if not unhappy. These thoughts pressed upon me, and rendered the conflict difficult. But the sacrifice of my prospects staggered me, I own, the most. When the other objections, which I have related, occurred to me, my enthusiasm instantly, like a flash of lightning, consumed them; but this stuck to me and troubled me. I had ambition. I had a thirst after worldly interest and honors, and I could not extinguish it at once. I was more than two hours in solitude under this painful conflict. At length I yielded, not because I saw any reasonable prospect of success in my new undertaking, (for all cool-headed and cool-hearted men would have pronounced against it,) but in obedience, I believe, to a higher power. And this I can say, that both on the moment of this resolution, and for some time afterwards, I had more sublime and happy feelings than at any former period of my life.
"The distribution of my books having been consigned to proper hands, I began to qualify myself by obtaining further knowledge for the management of this great cause. As I had obtained the principal part of it from reading, I thought I ought now to see what could be seen, and to know from living persons what could be known on the subject. With respect to the first of these points, the river Thames presented itself as at hand. Ships were going occasionally from the port of London to Africa, and why could I not get on board them and examine for myself? After diligent inquiry, I heard of one which had just arrived. I found her to be a little wood vessel, called the Lively, captain Williamson, or one which traded to Africa in the natural productions of the country, such as ivory, beeswax, Malaguetta pepper, palm-oil and dye-woods. I obtained specimens of some of these, so that I now became possessed of some of those things of which I had only read before. On conversing with the mate, he showed me one or two pieces of the cloth made by the natives, and from their own cotton. I prevailed upon him to sell me a piece of each. Here new feelings arose, and particularly when I considered that persons of so much apparent ingenuity, and capable of such beautiful work as the Africans, should be made slaves, and reduced to a level with the brute creation. My reflections here on the better use which might be made of Africa by the substitution of another trade, and on the better use which might lie made of her inhabitants, served greatly to animate and to sustain me against the labor of my pursuits.
"The next vessel I boarded was the Fly, captain Cooley. Here I found myself for the first time on the deck of a slave vessel. The sight of the rooms below and of the gratings above, and of the barricado across the deck, and the explanation of the uses of all these, filled me both with melancholy and horror. I found soon afterwards a fire of indignation kindled within me. I had now scarce patience to talk with those on board. I had not the coolness this first time to go leisurely over the places that were open to me. I got away quickly. But that which I thought I saw horrible in this vessel had the same effect upon me as that which I thought I had seen agreeable in the other, namely, to animate and to invigorate me in my pursuit.
"But I will not trouble the reader with any further account of my water expeditions, while attempting to perfect my knowledge upon this subject. I was equally assiduous in obtaining intelligence wherever it could be had; and being now always on the watch, I was frequently falling in with individuals from whom I gained something. My object was to see all who had been in Africa, but more particularly those who had never been interested, or who at any rate were not then interested in the trade. I gained, accordingly, access very early to general Rooke; to lieutenant Dalrymple, of the army; to captain Fiddes, of the engineers; to the reverend Mr. Newton; to Mr. Nisbett, a surgeon in the Minories; to Mr. Devaynes, who was then in parliament, and to many others; and I made it a rule to put down in writing, after every conversation, what had taken place in the course of it. By these means things began to unfold themselves to me more and more, and I found my stock of knowledge almost daily on the increase.
While, however, I was forwarding this, I was not inattentive to the other object of my pursuit, which was that of waiting upon members personally. The first I called upon was Sir Richard Hill. At the first interview he espoused the cause. I waited then upon others, and they professed themselves friendly; but they seemed to make this profession more from the emotion of good hearts, revolting at the bare mention of the slave-trade, than from any knowledge concerning it. One, however, whom I visited, Mr. Powys, (the late Lord Lilford,) with whom I had been before acquainted in Northamptonshire, seemed to doubt some of the facts in my book, from a belief that human nature was not capable of proceeding to such a pitch of wickedness. I asked him to name his facts. He selected the case of the hundred and thirty-two slaves who were thrown alive into the sea to defraud the underwriters. I promised to satisfy him fully upon this point, and went immediately to Granville Sharp, who lent me his account of the trial, as reported at large from the notes of the shorthand writer whom he had employed on the occasion. Mr. Powys read the account. He became, in consequence of it, convinced, as, indeed, he could not otherwise be, of the truth of what I had asserted, and he declared at the same time that, if this were true, there was nothing so horrible related of this trade, which might not immediately be believed. Mr. Powys had been always friendly to this question, but now he took a part in the distribution of my books.
"Among those whom I visited, was Mr. Wilberforce. On my first interview with him, he stated frankly, that the subject had often employed his thoughts, and that it was near his heart. He seemed earnest about it, and also very desirous of taking the trouble of inquiring further into it. Having read my book, which I had delivered to him in person, he sent for me. He expressed a wish that I would make him acquainted with some of my authorities for the assertions in it, which I did afterwards to his satisfaction. He asked me if I could support it by any other evidence. I told him I could. I mentioned Mr. Newton, Mr. Nisbett, and several others to him. He took the trouble of sending for all these. He made memoranda of their conversation, and, sending for me afterwards, showed them to me. On learning my intention to devote myself to the cause, he paid me many handsome compliments. He then desired me to call upon him often, and to acquaint him with my progress from time to time. He expressed also his willingness to afford me any assistance in his power in the prosecution of my pursuits."
Mr. Wilberforce finally pledged himself to bring forward the great question of the abolition of the slave-trade, in the House of Commons, as soon as he could prepare himself for so tremendous a task. The matter now assumed a new shape. A parliamentary leader had been secured, and one whose virtuous life corresponded with the sacredness of the cause he was to advocate. The friends of the cause formed themselves into an association, raised funds, and appointed a committee to procure information and select evidence. Mr. Clarkson was to visit Liverpool, Bristol, and other slave ports, to increase his own knowledge of the subject, and to procure evidence, in case parliament should call for witnesses. He was absent five months, and returned to London in December, 1787 — Meantime, the committee had opened an extensive correspondence throughout England, Scotland, and America. They circulated documents, and addressed by letter all the corporate bodies of the kingdom. Tokens of approbation and promises of support flowed in upon them. From France, letters of encouragement were received from the Marquis de La Fayette, and the afterwards celebrated Brissot and Claviere. La Fayette informed the committee that he should attempt the formation of a similar society in France.
Of the indefatigable labors and untiring faithfulness of the committee, the following summary will give some idea: From May, 17 81, to July, 1788, they had held no less than fifty-one meetings. These generally occupied them from about six in the evening till about eleven at night. In the intervals between the meetings they were often occupied, having each of them some object committed to his charge. It is remarkable, too, that though they were all, except one, engaged in business or trade, and though they had the same calls as other men for innocent recreation, and the same interruptions of their health, there were individuals who were not absent more than five or six times within this period. In the course of the thirteen months, during which they had exercised this public trust, they had printed, and afterwards distributed, not at random, but judiciously, and through respectable channels, (besides twenty-six thousand five hundred and twenty-six reports, accounts of debates in parliament, and other small papers,) no less than fifty-one thousand four hundred and thirty-two pamphlets, or books.
Thus commenced the great struggle which was destined to last for a period of twenty years; a struggle with the gigantic commercial interest of Liverpool, Bristol, and other ports, and the proprietors of the West India plantations.
Up to the month of February, 1788, thirty-five petitions had been presented to parliament, in favor of abolishing the trade. These proceedings produced such an effect upon the government, that the king was advised to order a committee of privy council to inquire into the nature of the slave-trade. This was dated February 11, 1788, and required the committee "to take into their consideration the present state of the African trade, particularly as far as related to the practice and manner of purchasing or obtaining slaves on the coast of Africa, and the importation and sale thereof, either in the British colonies and settlements, or in the foreign colonies and settlements in America or the West Indies; and also as far as related to the effects and consequences of the trade, both in Africa and in the said colonies and settlements, and to the general commerce of this kingdom; and that they should report to him in council the result of their inquiries, with such observations as they might have to offer thereupon."
An effort was made to enlist Mr. Pitt in the cause, and Mr. Clarkson thus describes his first interview with that great statesman: "My business in London was to hold a conversation with Mr. Pitt previously to the meeting of the council, and to try to interest him, as the first minister of state, in our favor. For this purpose, Mr. Wilberforce had opened the way for me, and an interview took place. We were in free conversation together for a considerable time, during which we went through most of the branches of the subject. Mr. Pitt appeared to me to have but little knowledge of it. He had also his doubts, which he expressed openly, on many points. He was at a loss to conceive how private interest should not always restrain the master of the slave from abusing him. This matter I explained to him as well as I could; and if he was not entirely satisfied with my interpretation of it, he was at least induced to believe that cruel practices were more probable than he had imagined. A second circumstance, the truth of which he doubted, was the mortality and usage of seamen in this trade; and a third was the statement, by which so much had been made of the riches of Africa, and of the genius and abilities of her people; for he seemed at a loss to comprehend, if these things were so, how it had happened that they should not have been more generally noticed before. I promised to satisfy him upon these points, and an interview was fixed for this purpose the next day.
"At the time appointed, I went with my books, papers and African productions. Mr. Pitt examined the former himself. He turned over leaf after leaf, in which the copies of the muster-rolls were contained, with great patience ; and when he had looked over above a hundred pages accurately, and found the name of every seaman inserted, his former abode or service, the time of his entry, and what had become of him, either by death, discharge, or desertion, he expressed his surprise at the great pains which had been taken in this branch of the inquiry, and confessed, with some emotion, that his doubts were wholly removed with respect to the destructive nature of this employment ; and he said, moreover, that the facts contained in these documents, if they had been but fairly copied, could never be disproved. He was equally astonished at the various woods and other productions of Africa, but most of all at the manufac- tures of the natives in cotton, leather, gold, and iron, which were laid before him. These he handled and examined over and over again. Many sublime thoughts seemed to rush in upon him at once at the sight of these, some of which he expressed with observations becoming a great and dignified mind. He thanked me for the light I had given him on many of the branches of this great question. And I went away under a certain conviction that I had left him much impressed in our favor."
The first witnesses examined by the council, were persons sent expressly as delegates from Liverpool, who had not only been themselves in the trade, but were at that time interested in it. They endeavored to show that none of the enormities charged belonged to it ; that it was attended with circumstances highly favorable to the Africans ; that it was so vitally connected with the manufacturing and commercial interests of the country that it would be almost national ruin to abolish it. A few, but highly respectable witnesses upon the other side were called before the council, and contributed to counteract the testimony of the Liverpool delegates. The inquiry continued for four months, during which time the petitions from the people to parliament had increased to one hundred and three.
