The Pima Indians/Technology/Artifacts

by Frank Russell

TECHNOLOGY

Artifacts

The manufactures of the Pimas were few in number and simple in character. It is interesting to compare the number of implements and weapons that are of wood with those made of stone, as this is a people classed as belonging to the Stone Age. It will be noticed that the articles of stone are of little consequence in point of number as compared with those of wood, but the stone objects are of the utmost importance from a cultural standpoint. The metate admits of no wooden substitute, and without it the full food value of maize could not have been utilized nor could wheat raising have been so readily taken up as an agricultural pursuit. Without the stone ax and knife there could have been little done in wood working; architecture would have been modified; agriculture, dependent upon irrigation, would have been all but impossible. In short, these three simple implements, made by striking one stone against another, have sufficed to transform the Pimas from the slaves of a harsh environment, compelled to rend their prey with tooth and nail, into an agricultural people who adapt the environment to their needs and make some provision, however slight, for the future.

WOOD

Weapons

Bow. First in importance among weapons must be placed the bow and the arrow. Pima bows are simple, undecorated, and not very carefully made. Those which exhibit weakness through splitting or otherwise are bound with fresh sinew in bands which shrink around the arms at the point where reenforcement is needed. Warriors made their bows of mulberry wood^[1] obtained in the Superstition and Pinal mountains. A bow that has been long used, especially in successful warfare, becomes a highly prized possession with which its owner is loath to part. The writer was so fortunate as to secure such a specimen (pl. XIII, a) which has the graceful compound curve of the conventional bow; it is of mulberry wood and has a neatly twisted, two-strand sinew string.^[2] Hunting bows^[3] (pl. XIII, b) are frequently made of osage orange wood, a material that is now obtainable from the whites along the Salt river. When mulberry wood was not available willow was used, and most of the hunting bows which men as well as boys continue to make for hunting hares and similar small game are of that wood. The primary type of arrow release prevails, the bow being held as in plate VII, b.

Arrows. The arrows of the Pimas are made from the straight stem of the arrow bush. The Kwahadkʽs and Papagos sometimes sold arrows of yucca stem to the Gileños, but these were scarcely equal in quality to those made of wood. The hunting arrows^[4] (pl. XIII, c) have two split feathers, two hand's breadths in length. War arrows^[5] have three feathers, less than half as long and slightly
Fig. 9. War clubs. curved. All arrow shafts are measured and cut the length from tip of forefinger to nipple of breast of the maker. Both bows and arrows are sometimes stained with the blood of the jack rabbit, and war arrows may be dyed at the ends with the cochineal which makes its home on the Opuntias. The quiver is made of wild-cat skin (pl. XIII, d).

War club. The club was of scarcely less importance than the bow, and it was customary for a portion of each band of warriors to fight with shield and club alone.^[6]

Lance. A short sharpened stick was sometimes used by the Pimas, who adopted it from the Yumas and Maricopas after the Spaniards supplied steel heads for the weapon. The sticks were colored red with mineral paint.^[7]

Agricultural Implements

Digging stick. The earliest agricultural implement was the digging stick. It was used in planting maize and other crops, as a lever to pry out bushes when clearing the ground, as a pick when digging irrigating ditches, and in case of surprise it made an effective weapon of defense. It was made of ironwood or from the spiny tree, Zizyphus lycioides.^[8] The short handle necessitated a crouching or sitting position by the operator. (Fig. 10, a.)

a	b	c	d
Fig. 10. Agricultural implements. a, Digging stick; b, shovel; c, hoe; d, dibble.

Shovel. Wooden shovels were used to throw out the earth that usually required loosening by the digging stick when constructing the irrigating canal. They were of cottonwood, in the case of the larger, lighter ones, or of mesquite. The handle and blade were in one piece, the former being very short and the latter having the natural curve of the trunk from which it came.^[9] (Fig. 10, b.)

Hoe. Another implement of early adoption by the Pimas combined the functions of spade and hoe. It was used to loosen the soil around plants and to cut away weeds. It was made of ironwood and was thin, hard, and heavy. As it was quite short and curved but slightly it could be used only when the workman was in a kneeling or sitting position. It was sharpened along the convex curve at the wider end. The entire implement was so thin that it must have chafed the hands. But one specimen was found on the reservation (fig. 10, c).^[10]

Dibble. The implement described above was superseded by one obtained from the Mexicans who frequently came to trade with the Pimas. The new implement more nearly resembled the primitive digging stick than it did the flat "hoe" (fig. 10, d). It was furnished with a steel blade that was straight on one side and rounded on the other.^[11]

Plow. Of comparatively modern introduction, the wooden plow is of but passing interest in our present researches. It is a survival of European culture that effectively influenced the Pimas for but one generation, or from 1850 to 1880, when the influx of Americans created a demand for wheat which the Pimas were able to supply in part as they could not have done without this implement. By the end of that period they received steel plows. The wooden plow was made of mesquite or ironwood with a cottonwood tongue that extended to the ox yoke. The rear end of the tongue was beveled underneath to an edge which engaged with a transverse notch in the handle. The bottom dragged at a considerable angle, so that the point alone came in contact with the soil. The cutting face was usually supplied with an iron or steel covering resembling the single-shovel cultivator of the Americans. The bottom and single handle were of one piece, the latter being a branch that set at a convenient angle, about 70 degrees, with the trunk of the tree from which the bottom of the plow was cut (fig. 11).^[12] The tongue was held in place by a mesquite pin passing through the bottom and a slot in the butt of the tongue and tightened by two wedges which were adjusted by means of a mesquite mallet carried for the purpose.^[13]

Fig. 11. Wooden plow.

Yoke. With the introduction of cattle the Pimas obtained their first draft animal. They were used principally in plowing and were fitted with yokes (fig. 12) of cottonwood or willow which were attached to the horns of the animals as in southern Europe to the present day. The yokes themselves are the best evidence that the burden upon the animals was light, for these small sticks of brittle wood would snap at the first strain if on the shoulders of an ox team with a heavy load. There are a few yokes yet to be found, though they have not been used for several years. The specimens collected are fairly well made, straight, but with sections hollowed to fit the necks of the team.^[14]

Fig. 12. Yoke.

a	b
c
d
Fig. 13. a, b, Mortars; c, wooden pestle; d, bread tray.

Household Utensils

Mortar. Perhaps the mortar should be placed first in importance among the utensils of this class. There are two forms, one (fig. 13, a) with the hole sunk in the end of the log, and which may be either sharpened at the other end and set permanently in the ground or cut flat at the opposite end so that it will stand upright and may be moved about. The other style (fig. 13, b) lies horizontal, with the hole in the side of the log. This is always portable.^[15]

Two or three stone mortars, rounded and well shaped, were seen; they had been obtained from the ruins and were little used. At the Double buttes, near the center of the Gila River reservation, there are a few mortar cavities in the solid rock ledges. There is also one in a large bowlder which is regarded with superstitious reverence. Mortars in solid stone are not uncommon in Arizona. The writer saw a row of them at the end of a cliff ruin of eight or ten rooms in Aravaipa canyon. There are several in a rough hillock in Harshaw canyon, Patagonia mountains. The base of the conical hill at Tucson is well pitted with them, They are occasionally met with almost anywhere in the eastern half of the Territory. With that portion west of the Rio Verde the writer is unacquainted. Reference to the pages devoted to a description of the plants that furnish food for the Pimas will show how extensively the mortar is used in grinding seeds.

Pestle. For pounding up mesquite beans in the mortar a large wooden pestle is sometimes used. It is simply a mesquite club with rounded head (fig. 13, c).^[16]

Bread tray. Neatly made trays of mesquite, rarely of cottonwood, are used, and appear to be among the most prized of the household utensils (fig. 13, d). They are employed for a variety of purposes besides that of mixing bread.^[17] Smaller trays and plates—circular, elliptical, and rectangular—are sometimes obtained from the Papagos.

a	b	c
Fig. 14. a, Doughnut fork; b, ladle; c, unfinished ladle.

Fork. In frying doughnuts it is necessary to have some instrument with which to remove them from the fat. A slender sharpened rod
Fig. 15. Pottery paddle.of arrowwood is used for this purpose (fig. 14, a).^[18]

Ladle. Ladles are said to be of recent introduction, the Pimas having obtained them from the Papagos, who in turn had derived the art of making them from the Mexicans. They are commonly made of mesquite, though the Papagos make them of paloverde wood. The bowls are not rounded, but are made in the shape of a flattened cone,
Fig. 16, a. Hanging shelf. as they can be more readily worked into that form with a straight-bladed knife.^[19]

Pottery paddle. A paddle of cottonwood is used to shape the outer surface of pottery. It is hollowed to fit the convex surface of the vessel, and is now frequently made from a barrel stave, which has the proper curvature. The paddles are of varying sizes, according to the sizes of the vessels on which they are used, but the handles are always proportionately short.^[20]

Shelves. There is a class of objects that are used indifferently for doors^[21] of sheds and houses, for shelves^[22] that are suspended in the arbors, and for bird traps.^[23] They are usually made of large arrowbush rods, which are quite straight and of uniform diameter. The rods are tied to cross pieces, as shown in figure 16, a, or are held by twisted cords of hide, as in figure 16, b. The latter specimen was serving as a door when purchased, and the fact that a "Melicano" wanted it caused its owners great astonishment and amusement. Indeed, the Pimas manifested a lively interest in our purchases of
Fig. 16, b. Door. household articles and never failed to laugh at the spectacle presented by the little wagon half buried beneath its load of unassorted objects.

Bird cage. The cages made by the Pimas are all of the same character, whether they are made for the large eagle or for the small Sonora dove, as in the case of the specimen^[24] figured (fig. 17). They are of arrowwood, laid up in log-cabin style or tied to transverse bars, as in the house doors.

Kiâhâ frame. It is to be remembered that the peculiar form of carrying basket is made possible by the use of the wooden frame. It is fully described on page 140.

Fire drill. In primitive times fire was kindled by the Pimas by means of a two-part drill (fig. 18, a),^[25] the simplest and most widespread form of fire drill. The operator knelt upon the ends of the hearth stick and twirled the upright stick between his palms. The
Fig. 17. Bird cage. hearth was of saguaro wood or of any other soft wood if that were not obtainable. Tinder was not used, the flame being developed in any inflammable material as soon as the smoke began to arise from the dust accumulated at the point of the drill.

With the advent of the whites flint and steel were used to kindle fire. The men carried these, with a little cotton for tinder, in leather pouches (fig. 42). Fire was preserved at each village or camp in an old stump whenever practicable.

Miscellaneous

Saguaro hook. The fruit of the giant cactus grows at so great a height^[26] that it can not be reached without the aid of some long-handled implement for dislodging it. Hooks^[27] are made by attaching, by means of maguey fiber, a straight piece of wood to the end of a long cactus rib. Doctor McGee has called the writer's attention to the fact that the angle at which the hook stands is of great ceremonial importance among the Papagos, but there would seem to be no significance attached to it by the Pimas, who have not been so dependent upon the cactus in the past as have their nomadic neighbors.

a	b	c
Fig. 18. a, Fire drill; b, saguaro hook; c, haʼnûm tweezers.

Tweezers. The spiny fruit of Opuntia arborescens is picked by means of willow tweezers (fig. 18, c). The arms are flexible and sufficiently elastic to spring back into place readily.^[28]

Tree. It was formerly the custom to erect a branched post in the space before the house door, on which to hang vessels or bags containing food. Of late a few (three were seen) "tree animals" are set in the ground near the buildings to serve as seats and for the children to play upon. They are sections of mesquite trees that have each a branch perpendicular to the plane of the trunk at a point where the latter bends in the opposite direction slightly, so that when the branch is set in the ground the trunk is horizontal with the exception of the end which curves upward in a manner somewhat resembling a vaulting horse.

Cradle. The frame of the cradle is of willow, in the form of a narrow bow with from 5 to 10 cross bars (fig. 19, a). It closely resembles the Mohave trellis frame, but is more rudely made.^[29] The frame was formerly covered with shredded willow bark to a depth of 3 or 4 inches and a bit of cotton cloth covered the whole. Now the willow bark is not so thick, and much more cloth, no longer of native make, is used. The cradle (fig. 19, b) is provided with a detachable hood made of willow bark in the checker style of weaving, the surface being ornamented in geometric patterns colored black and red. Over the hood a loose piece of cloth may be thrown to protect the occupant from flies. The babies when strapped closely in the cradles are frequently carried on the heads of their mothers, who may at the
Fig. 19, a. Cradle frame. same time have no insignificant burdens in their hands. When the children are about a year old they are carried astride the hip, unless upon a journey, when they are shifted around to the back, still astride,^[30] and there supported by a shawl or large cloth bound around the waist.^[31] The writer has seen women with children of 2 or 3 years on their backs, each carrying a sack of wheat on her head and lighter bundles in her hands.^[32]

Paint brush. The lines of pigment with which the face was formerly ornamented were applied by means of slender bits of arrowwood two or three inches long. The Kwahadk‘s were accustomed to
Fig. 19, b. Cradle. the tufted ends of the arrow-bush branches and carry them southward into Papagueria to be used as paint brushes.

Calender sticks. The Pimas keep a record of passing events by means of sticks carved with arbitrary mnemonic symbols. There are five such records in the tribe to-day—or were a year ago. The oldest of these sticks bears the history of seventy years. There were other sticks before these, but the vicissitudes of war, fire, and the peculiar burial customs of the people made away with them.^[33] There are three sticks in the collection, which have been designated Gila Crossing, Blackwater, and Casa Blanca calendars,^[34] from the names of the villages whence they came. The Casa Blanca stick (fig. 20, a) is of willow, peeled, slightly flattened, but otherwise bearing no signs of preparation for the symbols that occupy the greater part of one side.^[35] The Gila Crossing calendar (fig. 20, b) is a pine stick on which the record was copied several years ago from a stick yet in the same village. The record begins on the back, passes over the lower end in the figure, and extends again to the back over the upper end.^[36] The Blackwater stick (fig. 20, c) is of saguaro wood smoothed and carved for the writer by the keeper of the record, who lost the original some years ago and who has since been using paper and pencil, but the same symbols.^[37]

a	b	c
Fig. 20. Calendar sticks. a, From Casa Blanca; b, from Gila Crossing; c, from Blackwater.

Spurs. Wooden spurs were made from crotched limbs of mesquite of suitable size. They were attached to the foot by a deerskin thong fastened to form two loops of equal size, one passing over the instep and the other under the heel of the foot. So rare have they now become that the writer spent six months on the Gila River reservation without
Fig. 21. Wooden spur. discovering any, and therefore hired an old man to make a pair for the collection. Soon afterwards a single old spur was found, which differs from those made to order only in having deerskin instead of maguey fiber fastenings (fig. 21).^[38]

Saddle. Wooden saddletrees are sometimes made, both for riding and pack saddles. The former are covered with rawhide, shrunk on, and provided with stirrups of mesquite or willow wood. They are not common and are at best but crude imitations of the saddles made by the whites. Saddle blankets for use with them are of matted grass or maguey fiber.

Awl. There would seem to be no tradition of the former use of bone awls among the Pimas. They declare that awls of mesquite wood were used in making baskets before the introduction of steel. At present the points are of pieces of umbrella rib set in wooden handles of native manufacture (fig. 22, a).^[39] It will be observed that the upper end of the handle is provided with a button, so that it may be held between the third and fourth fingers while the thumb and other fingers are engaged in the manipulation of the basket splints. Handles of round balls of creosote gum^[40] are also used (fig. 22, b).^[41]

a	b
Fig. 22. Awls. a, Wooden handle; b, gum handle.

Rope twister. This apparatus is probably of European origin. It consists of a pin or handle of hard wood, such as mesquite or willow, which is thrust through a hole near the end of another stick, which acts as a spindle whorl. The latter piece has a button at the short end, to which are attached the maguey fibers or horse hairs (fig. 23). The operator, by a slight rising and falling motion of the handle, causes the spindle to revolve rapidly, thus twisting the fibers into a cord which lengthens as he steps backward. A second person meanwhile adds fresh fibers to the other end.^[42]

Âʼmĭna. Among the most important of the sacred objects in the paraphernalia of the medicine-men were the â’mĭna, or medicine sticks. They are usually of
Fig. 23. Rope twister. arrowwood; always bound together with cotton twine of native spinning, either with or without feathers attached to each separate stick. There are six â’mĭna bundles in the collection. One was made by Kâ’mâl tkâk, to be used exclusively in the exorcism of the Tcu’nyĭm, a spirit of disease. The bundle contains four groups of sticks: Two pairs, one bundle of 4, and one of 6. All are plain, being unmarked in any way (fig. 24).^[43]

The second bundle is painted green. Each stick is whittled to a blunt point at one end and has two short, downy turkey feathers attached (pl. XIV, b).^[44]

Fig. 24. Âʽmĭna with reed cloud blower and attached feathers. The third bundle contains two sets of 4 sticks each, which were originally painted blue. They are sharpened to tapering points at one end. To each stick is tied two of the tail feathers of some small bird (pl. XIV, a).^[45]

The fourth bundle contains three sets of 4 sticks each and the remains of another set which probably contained 4, though it is so old that it is in a fragmentary condition (pl. XIV, d).^[46] A bundle of feathers attached by strings is bound in with the â’mĭna, each one of which also bears two feathers, all the feathers being from a red-colored bird.

The fifth bundle contains three sets of 4 sticks each, but they are so old and broken that their original length can not be determined. They also have red feathers bound to them (pl. XIV, c).

The sixth bundle is very small and very old and it is probable that the unusual number of sticks—5—is due to the fact that a
Fig. 25, a. Horned toad effigy. portion of the bundle has crumbled with age (pl. XIV, e).

Animal effigies. Wooden images of reptiles and the like are used in the medicine-men's efforts to cure certain diseases. Two such specimens were collected. One is intended to. represent a horned toad (fig. 25, a),^[47] the other a lizard (fig. 25, b).^[48] They are either carelessly or clumsily made.

Mask. During his stay among the Pimas the writer heard of but
Fig. 25, b. Lizard effigy. two wooden masks being in their possession. One of these was collected and is here depicted in figure 26.^[49] Doctor Hough called his attention to the fact that it resembles those made by the Yaquis of Sonora, and it
Fig. 26. Navitco mask. is probable that the conception, if not the mask itself, was imported from the southward along with the masked Navitco ceremonies, despite the assertion of its former owner to the contrary, because it represents a higher degree of skill in woodworking than any piece of carving that the writer has seen done by a Pima. It is of cottonwood, perforated for the insertion of horsehair eyebrows, chin whisker, and two tufts on the center of each cheek, and is ornamented by an interrupted scroll and other lines unmistakably intended to be decorative. The mouth contains a half dozen pegs, giving a very realistic representation of teeth.

Wand. There are two wands or ceremonial sticks in the collection (fig. 27).^[50] The longer is of greasewood, Sarcobatus vermicularis, the material prescribed for ia’kita, or ceremonial paraphernalia of this class. It is spotted with black and red paint. The shorter wand is of willow, spotted with red. Both were made to be held in the hand during ceremonies intended to bring rain, to cure disease, and for kindred purposes.

Fig. 27. Ceremonial wands.

STONE

Metate

The metate is the most abundant of the stone implements of the Southwest, or, if arrow points exceed them in numbers, the former is at least the most noticeable. About nearly every ruin one sees the fragments of broken metates, in some cases to the number of several score, as at the ruin near Patagonia, in the Sonoita valley, where sixty metates were counted on the ground (every one had been intentionally broken), and there must have been a much larger number beneath the surface. Some of those found in the Hohokam ruins are of lava and have legs several inches in length. Most of these are hollowed out, as are those of the Hopis, whereas the metates of the Pimas are perfectly flat on the top from side to side, being slightly concave form end to end (fig. 28). They are of coarse-grained rock from the surrounding hills and never carved or provided with legs. They vary in weight from 20 to 200 pounds and are carried about the premises as needed, never being set in bins, as among the Pueblo tribes. Their grinding surface is sharpened or roughened by pecking with a stone ax, or with a similarly shaped stone if an ax is not obtainable.

Fig. 28. Grinding wheat on metate.

Fig. 29. Stone pestle.

Muller

The muller is of lava or of stone similar to that of the metate itself. It is longer than that used by the Hohokam, so that the entire upper surface of the metate is worn down. It is not shaped into a rectangular bar, as is that found in the ruins. Indeed, the writer saw few that showed any evidence of having been shaped in any manner except through use.

Pestle

The stone pestle^[51] is used in every Pima household to crush the mesquite bean and other seeds in the wooden mortars. The pestle varies in size from the small stone the size of one's finger to the great cylinder weighing 20 pounds that requires both hands to wield it. Many of these are obtained from the ruins, but some are shaped by pecking. This is not all done at once, but, a suitable stone having been selected, it is shaped little by little, day by day, as the owner has leisure for the work. This suggests that much of the stonework of primitive peoples which excites our admiration for their patience has been done in this manner, the implement being in use continually and
Fig. 30. Arrowheads. the task of pecking it into more convenient or more pleasing shape being taken up from time to time as "knitting work."

Ax

The stone axes of the Pimas were obtained from the ruins that are far more extensive than the Pima villages in the Gila and Salt River valleys. Most of these axes have each a single blade, many are double-bitted, and some are of the adz form. Others are so large and finely polished as to render plausible the supposition that they were intended for ceremonial use. All are of hard, fine-grained igneous rock called hatovĭk by the Pimas, some of whom assert that the material comes from near the Gulf of California, where they have seen it when on journeys after salt. Others declare that there is no such stone on the surface of the earth, and that all the axes we find now were made from material that was brought from the underworld when Elder Brother led the netherworld people up to conquer those
Fig. 31. Arrow-shaft straightener. then living above. However, no particular religious significance is attached to the axes, as might be

expected, considering their origin. They are sold readily enough, though when a suitable ax is kept for sharpening the metate of the household it is sometimes difficult for a collector to secure it. There is an abundance of suitable stones along the Salt river below where it breaks through the Superstition mountains, and it is probable that all the axes in the valley were obtained from that immediate locality. The few that were seen hafted were fastened with sinew in the fork of a limb of suitable size.

Arrowheads

A great portion of those used by the Pimas were made by the Hohokam. However, the Pimas always had a few arrowhead makers who worked in obsidian, shale, or flint. They produced small heads varying from 1 to 2½ cm. in length by 1 in breadth. Those represented in figure 30 are old points. The heads are stemless, sometimes having shoulders for the sinew seizing. One man was found who continues to make arrowheads, which he sells to the whites.

Arrow-shaft Straightener

The Pimas had very little need for grooved stones for straightening arrows as the arrowwood is naturally as straight as could be desired. It is probable that the stones of this kind found in the ruins were used merely for polishing. The Pimas used them scarcely at all.^[52]

Hammer Stones

These are frequently seen around the ruins of Arizona, but the Pimas seem to have little use for them.

Fig. 32. Crystals from medicine basket.

Firestones

Three stones, each about 15 cm. in diameter, were used to support the cooking pots over the fire. They have been largely supplanted by an iron frame obtained from the agency blacksmith. These stones were picked up when needed and little effort made to preserve then.

Crystals

Crystals and curiously shaped stones of all kinds were preserved in the outfits of the medicine-men. Several such specimens were purchased and some were found in a cache among the hills (fig. 32).^[53]

Magic Tablets

The collection contains two tablets which were obtained from medicine-men and half of one which was found in the cache above referred to (fig. 33, a, b, c). Two have ornamental borders, while
a
cb
Fig. 33, a, b, c. Magic tablets. the third is quite smooth to the rounded margin; it has the figure of a horse scratched on one side and that of a man on the other.^[54]

Turquoise

This stone, which is so common in some parts of the Southwest that every Indian has it hanging from ears, neck, or arms, seems to be rare in Pimeria. But one pair of ear pendants was seen. It was somewhat more abundant in early days. It was believed that if a man lost a turquoise the mishap was due to magic, and as a result he would be afflicted with some mysterious ailment which could be cured only by a medicine-man skilled in the cure of the "doctor's disease." He would use another piece of turquoise
Fig. 34. Stone pipe. or a slate or a crystal, placing the stone in water and giving the latter to the patient to drink.

Pipe

A stone cylinder (fig. 34),^[55] probably a pipe, was obtained from a Pima, who said that he had "found it long ago." It seems short for such a purpose, yet it is longer than a cane cylinder the writer found in actual use. The smoke is blown outward in certain ceremonies and in others drawn in. These tubes were also used by the Pimas in sucking and blowing the bodies of the sick for the purpose of expelling disease.

FIBER AND LEATHER

Saddle

In addition to the wooden saddletrees already mentioned the Pimas made them each of two rolls of grass or straw, inclosed in blue denim or canvas and bound with a network of rawhide. A specimen^[56] in the collection (pl. XV, a, b) has two such rolls fastened together with both horsehair and maguey cords. The top is covered with leather
Fig. 35. Saddle bag. taken from two old boot legs. One stirrup is wanting; the one that remains is of native manufacture. The accompanying cinch (pl. XV, c)^[57] is of horsehair neatly twisted and quite strong and serviceable. When used, it was passed over the saddle instead of being attached to it. A Pima is rarely seen riding bareback, and most have good saddles of American manufacture. Bartlett states that those who rode bareback at the time of his visit in 1850 thrust one foot under a loosely fastened surcingle.^[58]

Saddlebag

A coarse net of maguey fiber is made to carry bulky objects upon either pack or riding saddles. The fibers are twisted into two strands, which are united to form a rope 5 mm. in diameter; with this the meshes are made about 12 cm. in length by an interlocking knot of the simplest character. The bag in the collection is about 1 m. in length (fig. 35).

Head Rings

The round-bottomed water jars and many similar heavy burdens besides were borne upon the heads of the women with the aid of the rings of willow bark in the early days, and new with rings of rags wrapped with cotton cloth.^[59] Of less common use are the agave-leaf rings, which should be classed as twined basketry.^[60] They are folded at each margin so that a ring is made up of three thicknesses of matting. This ring is smaller than the other types and is used for lighter burdens (fig. 36, b). Almost any cloth (fig. 36, c) may be improvised into a head ring, and aprons are especially convenient for such use.

a	b	c
Fig. 36. Head rings. a, Willow bark; b, agave leaf; c, cloth.

Rope

Picket ropes of maguey fiber (figs. 37, b and 38) are brought by the Papagos to trade to the Pimas. They are about 10 m. long and 1 cm. in diameter, made of four 2-ply strands. They ere strong, but the harsh and coarse fiber renders them disagreeable to the touch of any but a hardened hand. The prepared fibers for rope making in this collection measure 60 cm. in length. With such material and a rope twister the process of manufacturing rope is a rapid one.

a	b
Fig. 37. a, Horsehair halter; b, maguey rope.

Human hair is both twisted and braided into cords for tightening kiâhâ frames. The cords are usually made of four strands of 2-ply twisted threads. They are about 5 mm. in diameter when finished.

Fig. 38. Maguey fiber.

Halters

Horsehair is quite popular as a material for the manufacture of halters. The halter here illustrated (fig. 37, a) has a loop of light cord, 45 cm. in length, to be passed over the horse's head. The rope has a loop 26 cm. long that passes over the nose. The length of the rope from the knot of this loop is 3.150 m. It is of four strands of 4-ply threads, one of the strands being white.

Bridles

Bridles are also made of horsehair, vicious looking bits being sold by the traders for them.

a	b
Fig. 39. a, Fetish; b, hair ornament.

Fetish

The collection contains a fetish (fig. 39, a) and a hair ornament made of seven wing feathers of a hawk (fig. 39, b) which have been joined by laying a strip of cotton cloth on the quill of each feather and binding it there with sinew, then braiding the loose ends of the strips together into a cord 15 cm. long. In this way the feathers are permanently fastened to one another and may be easily attached when it is desired to wear them as a fetish, or they may be readily attached to the hair to form a portion of the headdress.

War Headdress

At Gila Crossing we were so fortunate as to secure a specimen of an old Pima headdress made from the hair of an Apache and the wing feathers of three species of large raptorial birds (fig. 40). The hair is about 45 cm. long and is gathered in strands 1 cm. in thickness, which are held by two strips of cotton that are twisted or twined on each other a half turn between each pair of hair strands.^[61] Viewing the headdress from the rear there are on the left four owl feathers, symbolizing keenness of vision by night; next are three hawk, then one owl, and again hawk feathers to the number of five, symbolizing keenness of vision by day; on the right are two eagle feathers, the symbol of swiftness. Thus the wearer of this headdress possessed the courage and cunning of the hated enemy, the keen sight by day and by night of the birds that have great magic power, according to Pima belief, and the swiftness as a trailer of the king of birds, which occupies a prominent place in Piman mythology.

Fig. 40. War headdress.

and binding it there with sinew, then braiding the loose ends of the strips together into a cord 15 cm. long. In this way the feathers are permanently fastened to one another and may be easily attached when it is desired to wear them as a fetish, or they may be readily attached to the hair to form a portion of the headdress.

War Headdress

At Gila Crossing we were so fortunate as to secure a specimen of an old Pima headdress made from the hair of an Apache and the wing feathers of three species of large raptorial birds (fig. 40). The hair is about 45 cm. long and is gathered in strands 1 cm. in thickness, which are held by two strips of cotton that are twisted or twined on each other a half turn between each pair of hair strands.^[62] Viewing the headdress from the rear there are on the left four owl feathers, symbolizing keenness of vision by night; next are three hawk, then one owl, and again hawk feathers to the number of five, symbolizing keenness of vision by day; on the right are two eagle feathers, the symbol of swiftness. Thus the wearer of this headdress possessed the courage and cunning of the hated enemy, the keen sight by day and by night of the birds that have great magic power, according to Pima belief, and the swiftness as a trailer of the king of birds, which occupies a prominent place in Piman mythology.

Hairbrush

Using their fingers as combs, the women become very skillful in straightening out tangled locks. They frequently smooth the hair with a brush which was formerly made of the roots of the "Sacaton grass," Sporobolus wrightii (fig. 41, a),^[63] but as this no longer grows along the river, where the majority of the villages are situated, they now make use of maguey fiber, Agave lecheguea, Yucca paccata, etc. (fig. 41, b).^[64] These fibers make very satisfactory brushes, but they are not so stiff as brushes made of bristles. The fibers are not set in a handle but are tied in a round bundle a little below the middle, then folded outward from the center so that the upper end or handle is round and smooth while the lower end includes all the free fiber ends. Twine is then wrapped in a coil around the upper end downward until the brush end remains just long enough to give the fibers play in passing through the hair. The wrapping may be either of fiber or of horsehair; in the latter case pleasing geometric patterns are often worked out with contrasted black and white threads. The specimen illustrated in figure 41, b is bound with maguey fiber which has been decorated with three lines of purple dye, put on after the wrapping has been completed.

Skin Dressing

The use of leather in the manufacture of clothing was reduced to a minimum among the Pimas. For sandals, rawhide sufficed, and if this was not to be had there was an abundance of yucca fiber, which made a fair substitute. For the shields, with the use of which they became adept through training from childhood, rawhide was employed. So the needs which dressed leather alone could satisfy were but few, and it is probable that Gileño women did little more than enough skin dressing to keep the art alive among them. At present there are
ba
Fig. 41. Hairbrushes. a, Sacaton grass roots; b, maguey fiber. very few who know anything about it, and this is the method which they say "long ago make it."

A skin was soaked in water for two or three days to soften it; then it was laid on an inclined log and the hair scraped off with a deer's rib. Two tanning media were used—brains and saguaro seeds. The former were kept dried into a cake with dry grass until they were needed, when they were softened in water. The seeds were available at any time, as they were always kept in store as an article of food.

The roots of the plant known as urto, Krameria parvifolia, were used to dye leather red.

Fire Bag

Leather bags were used to carry flint and steel, and a specimen of these comparatively modern articles is shown in figure 42. It is ornamented with tin bangles and glass beads.
Fig. 42. Fire bag.

Tobacco Pouches

Tobacco was not recognized by the Pimas as a narcotic that would stunt the growth in youth or injuriously affect the heart as age advanced, nor yet as a solace for leisure moments. It was to them a plant of divine origin that in its death (burning) released a spirit (odor and smoke) that was wafted by the breeze to the home of the magic beings that shape man's destiny. Throughout Pimería one may find sacred places where large numbers of cane cigarettes have been deposited by worshipers. It is uncertain how far this form of

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1. "The mulberry plays an important part in the domestic economy of the Apaches; the branches are made into bows, and the small twigs are used in the fabrication of baskets." John G. Bourke, Jour. Am. Folk-Lore, III, 210.
2. Length 1.350 m., width at grip 26 mm., thickness 18 mm.
3. Length 1.365 m., width at grip 26 mm., thickness 22 mm.
4. There are eleven hunting arrows in the collection; length 0.785 m., sharpened to blunt points but having neither head nor foreshaft. There are 3 bands of sinew 4 cm. apart, the first at the point. The seizing at the forward end of the feathers is 5 cm. long. The feathers vary from 12 to 22 cm. in length between the seizing at ends. They project 1 cm. from the shaftment. There are 10 bands of sinew very neatly laid on to hold the feathers in place. The notches are 4 mm. deep.
5. The single war arrow in the collection is unusually long, 0.850 m. It is stained with cochineal for a distance of 0.117 m. from the point. It carries a small obsidian point 2 cm. in length, with the sinew seizing continued from the point 3 cm. along the shaft. The feathers are 0.10 cm. long and project 7 mm. from the shaftment. The butt is stained for a distance of 5 cm.
6. Bartlett, usually an admirable observer, failed to notice that the war club was a popular Pima weapon. He says: "The only weapon used by these tribes is the bow and arrow. The short club of the Yumas and the long lance of the Apaches I never saw among them." (Personal Narrative, II, 237.) The clubs were made of mesquite root or of ironwood, weighed about 2 pounds, and in general appearance resembled the old style potato mashers of New England kitchens. (Fig. 9.) The handle was brought to a sharp point, which was almost as effective as a dagger in a back-handed blow. The club was carried thrust point downward through the belt. One club was obtained from its owner and another found in a cache of personal property that had been made in the hills at the death of the owner. The former is 42 cm. long, the head 10 cm. long and 9 cm. in diameter; the point is 9 cm. long. A club in the National Museum, (no. 27846) that was collected some years ago at Sacaton is 0.385 m. long, 7 cm. in diameter. Doctor Palmer secured three in 1885 and believed that none remained among the Pimas. These clubs, now in the Museum, are of the following lengths: no. 76023, 48 cm.; 76024, 44 cm.; and 76025, 46 cm.
7. The collection contains a wooden lance, made from a giant cactus rib, that was carried in sham battles near the Double buttes. It is 1.595 m. long, the larger end colored black to represent the iron head, which is represented as 0.265 m. long, 24 mm. wide, and 10 mm. thick. The handle is stained a light red.
8. No genuine specimen being now obtainable, the writer had a digging stick (fig. 10, a) made, which measures 1.140 m. in length. It is 40 mm. in diameter, and is fattened at the lower end.
9. The old people yet remember how the wooden shovels were made. Whether the Pimas have directiy descended from the Hohokam or not, it is very probable that the former have used the same form of shovel that was used by the latter when constructing the great irrigating canals of that region. The specimen figured here (fig. 10, b) may therefore be accepted as a representative of the shovel that was probably the instrument that made those canals a possibility. It is 0.850 m. long; the blade is 0.276 m. long and 0.167 m. wide.
10. It is 0.680 m. long and 0.083 m. wide; the cutting edge is 17 cm. long.
11. Length, 1.090 m.; length of blade, 0.215 m. to top of socket; width, 0.115 m.
12. Two specimens were collected; only one other was seen or heard of on the reservation. The larger one is complete, with tongue. It is 0.900 m. long; handle, 0.850 m., and tongue 3.490 m.
13. A mallet in the collection measures 0.380 m. in length and 5 cm. in diameter.
14. There are two specimens In the collection. The larger is 1.450 m. long; 10 cm. in diameter at the middle, with notches for necks; 30 cm. wide. The second specimen is 1.200 m. long.
15. The mortar of the horizontal type in the collection is perhaps a trifle smaller than the average. It measures 40 cm. in length, 27 cm. in height, and 22 cm. in thickness. A heavy specimen of this type in the collection measures 37 om. in height, 32 cm. in diameter; the cavity is 17 cm. deep.
16. One specimen, the only one seen, was secured. It is 1.210 m. long and the head is 0.335 m. in diameter.
17. The specimen collected is 0.615 m. long, 0.355 m. wide, and 0.071 m. deep. The legs are 24 cm. long; they are three in number and of the same piece of wood as the body of the tray. There is one round shallow tray, no. 76051, in the National Museum that is 46 cm. in diameter.
18. The specimen collected is 45 cm. long.
19. The finished specimen in the collection is rather smaller than the average (fig. 14, b). It is 0.394 m. long. The bowl is 94 mm. in diameter and 42 mm. deep. The unfinished specimen (fig. 14, c) is a large one, measuring 0.570 m. in length. The National Museum contains a specimen, no. 76050, which measures 56 cm. in length, with bowl 15 cm. in diameter.
20. The collection contains one which is 0.268 m. long and 0.112 m. wide (fig. 15).
21. The door (fig. 16, b) is 1 m. long and 0.850 m. wide. The rods are from 1 to 2 centimeters in diameter and are held by 5 hide strands, 2 at each end and 1 in the middle. The stiffening of the rawhide has warped the upper portion.
22. The shelf (fig. 16, a) is 1.050 m. long and 50 cm. wide.
23. When used as traps they are tilted at an angle of 20° or 30° from the ground and supported in that position by a short stick to which a long cord is attached. Wheat strewn under the trap lures small birds, which are caught when a jerk on the line removes the supporting stick. One of these traps was seen at nearly every house during the winter of 1901–2.
24. This specimen has an arched top and a single piece of pine board for a floor. It is 32 cm. long by 23 cm. wide and 15 cm. high.
25. The drill hearth in the collection is 0.315 m. long and 21 mm. wide. The spindle is 68 cm. long and 9 mm. in diameter.
26. See pl. IX, a, where the saguaro appears in flower in the background.
27. The specimen illustrated in fig. 18, b was cut short for convenience of carrying. The handles vary in length from 2 to 5 m. The hook is 165 mm. long and 8 mm. in diameter.
28. The specimen collected is 31 cm. long; natural spread of jaws, 55 mm.
29. See Mason In Report National Museum, 1894, 524.
30. Doctor Palmer says that as soon as a child is old enough to stand alone the mother carries it on an immense cincture of bark worn on her back. The author saw no such cinctures in use and believes that their use has been abandoned.
31. Mason, Cradles, In Report National Museum, 1887, 184.
32. The frame of the cradle figured is 67 cm. long by 20 cm. wide. The hood is 38 cm. high.
33. See p. 35. They are mentioned here merely for the purpose of describing the sticks as products of the woodworker's skill.
34. The Casa Blanca calendar is not recorded in "The Narrative," p. 38.
35. Length, 93 cm.; diameter, 16 mm.
36. Length, 96 cm.; diameter, 18 mm.
37. Length, 1.395m.; diameter, 20 mm.
38. Length, 0.152 m.; spread across fork, 9 cm.
39. Length of specimen (fig. 22, a) 0.103 m., of which 56 mm. is handle.
40. Deposited on the branches of the creosote bush by the minute scale insect, Carteria larreæ.
41. Length, 3 cm.; diameter of handle, 24 mm.
42. Length of pin, 0.254 m.; diameter, 8 mm.; length of spindle, 32 cm.
43. Length, 0.167 m.; diameter, 6 mm.
44. Length, 0.155 m.; diameter, 21 mm. The feathers an a trifle shorter than the sticks.
45. Length, 0.136 m.; diameter, 10 mm.
46. Length of sticks, 17 cm.; diameter, 7 mm.
47. Length, 10 cm.; width, 42 mm.
48. Length, 28 cm.; width, 4 cm.
49. Length, 0.208 m.; width, 0.153 m.
50. Length of the longer figure, 76 cm.; of the shorter, 28 cm.
51. An average-sized specimen in the collection weighs 4½ pounds; it is 253 mm. long and 76 mm. in diameter (fig. 29).
52. A specimen (Hohokam) in the collection (fig. 31) has been shaped to represent some animal (?). It is 92 mm. long and 60 mm. wide.
53. Compare Cushing: "In this connection it is interesting to add as of possible moment suggestively that associated with the ultra mural remains [in the Salt River valley], both house- and pyral-, were found small, peculiar concretion-stones and crystals evidently once used as personal fetiches or amulets, as is the case at Zuñi to-day." Congrès International des Américanistes, VII^me sess., 1890, 179.
54. The last tablet is 122 mm. long by 56 mm. wide; it is 6 mm. thick at one side and tapers to 2 mm. at the other. The largest specimen is 151 mm. long by 94 mm. wide and 10 mm. thick; the border is 10 mm. wide, marked thus: XXXX. The broken specimen is 87 mm. wide: its length can not be determined. The X pattern at the margin runs over to the surface of the reverse side.
55. Length, 48 mm.; internal diameter, 16 mm.; maximum external diameter, 26 mm.
56. Length, 60 cm.; diameter of rolls at the middle, 10 cm. They are thickened slightly at the ends to form pommel and cantle.
57. Length, 75 cm.; width, 7 cm.
58. Narrative, II, 237.
59. The bark head ring (fig. 36, a) is 135 mm. in diameter and the opening in the center is 42 mm. in diameter.
60. Diameter of specimen collected, 10 cm.; height, 165 mm.
61. The general use of human hair for cords and in headdresses by the Pimas suggests Lower Californian affinities, as we are told by Venegas that the natives of that peninsula were accustomed to adorn themselves on ceremonial occasions with "a large cloak covering them from their head to their feet, and entirely composed of human hair." History of California. I, 99.
62. The general use of human hair for cords and in headdresses by the Pimas suggests Lower Californian affinities, as we are told by Venegas that the natives of that peninsula were accustomed to adorn themselves on ceremonial occasions with "a large cloak covering them from their head to their feet, and entirely composed of human hair." History of California. I, 99.
63. Length of specimen figured, 22 cm.; diameter, 37 mm.
64. Length of specimen figured, 17 cm.; diameter, 18 mm.