The Story of Bohemia/Chapter 3
Chapter III.
FROM PREMYSL OTTOKAR II TO THE REIGN OF CHARLES IV.
PREMYSL OTTOKAR II.
Premysl Ottokar was one of the greatest princes that ever ruled in Bohemia; and, in his day, he may be regarded as the greatest prince in Europe; his country, if not the largest, being the wealthiest and most renowned in military glory. The kingdom of Bohemia under Ottokar included Moravia, Carinthia, Lusatia, Lower and Upper Austria, the dominions extending from the Riesengebirge on the north, to the Adriatic Sea on the south. The protection of Ottokar was sought by the Dukes of Poland, Silesia, and by several Italian States.
The political power of Ottokar may be ascribed to a happy combination of circumstances and events rather than to his own character and achievements. He gained Austria, even before the death of his father, by being elected to the government by the lords of that country. To strengthen his hold in the newly-acquired territory, he did not hesitate to marry Margaret, the widow of the Emperor Henry, a woman twenty-three years his senior. His own strength was also due to the weakness of his natural rivals, the various princes of Germany. Yet Ottokar was an excellent ruler, doing much to develop the resources of his country. He enacted some good laws, and wrought quite a reform in the administration of justice. He gave a great impetus to trade by establishing a uniform system of weights and measures. Václav had squandered most of the crown estates by giving them away to his favorites; and, as these had been gained by fraud, Ottokar did not scruple to restore them to the crown by compulsion. This was done in a very summary manner. The lords were invited to the palace in Prague, and, without any warning, seized and cast into prison, and there kept till they were willing to give up the estates in question. In this way Ottokar gained much wealth, but also the deadly enmity of these lords; and, in time, their vengeance. Besides depriving his nobles of the unlawfully-gained estates, Ottokar humbled them by curtailing many of the rights and privileges granted them by his father. Indeed, the reign of Václav was the golden age of the Bohemian nobility; they had become rich and strong, and consequently very unruly. As an offset to this power, Ottokar established another privileged class; these were corporate cities, the inhabitants of which, enjoying many privileges, were very loyal to their king. Nor was this all; they were also a source of revenue. In the establishment of corporate cities, the king gained a great deal; but, at the same time, a grievous wrong was done to his own subjects. The inhabitants of these cities were mostly German immigrants, the introduction of whom into the country never failed to bring trouble. The two nationalities might have been mutually helpful, but history proves that they never were. The genius of intellectual development for the two races was different, and each was better off when left to grow according to the spiritual laws of its own nation. The introduction of so many foreigners into the country was in itself a great evil, but the special privileges granted to them were even worse. The new towns were given the exclusive right to all trade and manufactures within a distance of three miles from their boundaries. This brought thousands of small tradesmen to ruin. Forbidden to work at their trade in their native villages, and having no other means of sustenance, they were compelled to become thieves or beggars. Besides this, it was an intolerable hardship to the people of the villages to be obliged to go to the German town for every little thing that they needed in the household. Most historians praise Ottokar because he did not resort to any unjust and illegal method of taxation; but the establishment of corporate towns, with special privileges, was a far greater evil than any illegal taxation; the latter would have occasionally been a heavy burden, while the former proved a permanent evil. Indeed, the right of exclusive trade was afterwards extended to the estates of the nobility and the clergy.
Among the old cities that were granted corporate rights were Prague, Kuttenberg, Pilsen, Litomeritz, Hradetz, Budweis, Rolin, Melnik, Domazlitz, and some others. These were known afterwards as royal cities.
Aside from this great wrong done to the native tradesmen, Ottokar tried to be just to his subjects, and to protect the lower classes against the oppression of the higher. For this reason he was quite popular with the common people, but secretly hated by the aristocracy.
PREMYSL OTTOKAR’S MILITARY CAREER.
Premysl Ottokar was a man of war, and his numerous victories caused his fame to be spread all over Europe.
The first war that he engaged in was a crusade against the Prussians upon the Baltic. At this early period in history, the people inhabiting the countries that now constitute Northern Germany belonged to the Slavonic race. They were still heathen, notwithstanding the repeated efforts of the Germans to present the gospel to them at the point of the sword. The Slavonic races were open to the teachings of Christianity when presented to them in the right spirit, which is shown in the cases of Moravia, Bohemia, and Russia, all of which received the new religion from choice, and not from compulsion. It is not pleasant to reflect that Premysl Ottokar, a prince of their own blood, should join their inveterate enemies to invade their country, offering them the new faith, while, at the same time, they secretly hoped it would not be accepted; in which case they would have a plausible pretext to murder them and obtain possession of their wealth.
This crusade was undertaken by the German branch of the Knights of Jerusalem, and the Pope had requested Premysl Ottokar to send as large an army as possible to their aid. As some of the fortresses of the Prussians were built in deep forests, surrounded by rivers and marches that made them almost inaccessible, the time chosen for the campaign was winter, when the ground was frozen. With an army of 60,000 men, Ottokar invaded the country. Before attacking the enemy, they entered the sacred groves, cut down the ancient oaks, and burned the images, thus showing the people the helplessness of the gods in whom they had placed so much faith. Having lost faith in their gods, the Prussians were struck with a panic and easily defeated; and, there being no other alternative, they consented to be baptized.
To conciliate the conquered, and make the new religion appear more attractive to them, the commanders decided to stand as sponsors to the chief Prussians. King Ottokar stood sponsor to the first nobleman, giving him his own name, and, what was of more value, many rich gifts; Otto, the Margrave of Brandenburg, and other German princes, followed the royal example. The common people, seeing their leaders treated with so much consideration, hastened from all directions, willingly receiving baptism.
In commemoration of the success of the enterprise, Ottokar founded a new city, which was named Königsberg, after which he returned to his own country.
This campaign against the Prussians greatly enhanced the glory and military renown of Ottokar. Upon the death of the Emperor of Germany, he was offered the imperial crown; but fearing that, beyond the empty title, he would have more trouble than gain, he declined the honor. The wretched condition of the German Empire may be inferred from the fact, that no home prince could be found to accept the imperial crown; and the electors were obliged to go to a foreign land to seek for a suitable candidate. Richard of Cornwall, brother of the English king, was chosen to be emperor, the Bohemian king at once forming a treaty of alliance and friendship with him.
Philip, the Archbishop of Salzburg, who was Ottokar’s cousin, had trouble with his chapter, upon which he was deposed, War with Bavaria and another archbishop appointed in his place. As the deposed archbishop refused to give up his office, war broke out, and Ottokar went to the assistance of his cousin. He was defeated, and compelled to leave the country in disgrace, after giving up several towns and fortresses to the Bavarians.
Ottokar, however, soon retrieved his military honor by a series of brilliant victories over the Hungarians. War with Hungary Bela, the King of Hungary, declared war against Ulric and Philip, the Dukes of Carinthia, who appealed for aid to Ottokar. At the same time the people of Styria rose in rebellion against the Hungarians, and turned for help to Ottokar, promising to make him their ruler if once free from the Magyar yoke. Ottokar granted the request, sent an army into Styria, which drove out the Hungarians, and established a Bohemian nobleman in the government. This proved the beginning of a great war between Hungary and Bohemia. The rulers of both countries made vast preparations for the coming contest. King Bela impressed into his service all the able-bodied men of his dominions, besides making alliances of friendship with the neighboring States. He soon had an army of 140,000, composed of Magyars, Croats, Bosnians, Serbs, Bulgarians, Italians, Greeks, and even a regiment of Tartar mercenaries.
Ottokar collected his troops from Bohemia, Moravia, and Austria, several German princes also sending some troops. His army numbered 100,000 men, among them a regiment of 7,000 cavalry, composed entirely of Bohemians, and clad in steel armor from head to foot.
In the spring of 1260 the two great armies met upon the opposite banks of the Danube, where they remained for several days facing each other, neither daring to run the risk of crossing the river. At length, Ottokar sent messengers to the Hungarian camp, asking King Bela, either to let the Bohemian army cross the river, or to cross it themselves, he pledging his honor that they should not be molested until they were safely over, when both armies could fight with the same advantage. King Bela decided to cross, whereupon Ottokar withdrew with his army to give the enemy abundance of room for landing. While thus falling back, his regiments became separated from each other, and the Hungarians, perceiving this, thought it a favorable moment to make an attack and gain an easy victory. Thus Stephen, the son of Bela, unmindful that the truce had not yet expired, most treacherously fell upon the main division of the Bohemian army, which, for a moment was thrown into confusion. But the alarm being sounded, the regiments were soon in the place of danger, ready to meet the foe. Just as they were about to make the attack, the sun came out, the fog that had before obscured their vision vanished, and the whole army saw before them the iron seven thousand waving the banner of St. Václav. This was a good omen: St. Václav would fight for them. A wild shout burst from the soldiers, and, as if by inspiration, the vast army united in singing the old Slavonic hymn, “Hospodine pomiluj ny”—(Lord, have mercy upon us). Then they rushed to battle with so much enthusiasm and impetuosity that the enemy soon began to fall back, and finally ran to the river in a headlong flight. Eighteen thousand men of the Hungarian army remained upon the field of battle, while fourteen thousand more perished in the waves of the Danube.
King Bela, humbled in spirit, sued for peace. It was made upon conditions that Styria should remain under the government of Bohemia, and the Hungarian king should give his son Bela in marriage to Kunigunda, the daughter of the Viscount of Brandenburg, and niece of Ottokar. This victory over the Hungarians won much renown for both King Ottokar and the Bohemians. On accounnt of the 7,000 cavalry clad in steel armor, the Tartars called Ottokar the Iron King; but throughout Europe he was called the Golden King, on account of his wealth and the magnificence of his court.
The wedding of the son of the Hungarian king and the niece of Ottokar was held three years later, The Wedding of Kunigunda and Bela. on the very grounds where the great battle was fought; and, as it well illustrates the wealth of the Bohemian king and the splendor of his court, a short description will here be given.
The preparations for the wedding were on so grand a scale that many princes, doubting the reports, sent emissaries to Vienna to spy out the real facts. The place selected, for the wedding-feast was near the village of Kressenbrunn, about ten miles from Vienna. Tents were put up, having all the accommodations of permanent dwellings. A bridge wide enough for ten riders to go abreast was built across the Danube. Two large palace-like tents were set up, in which each king, surrounded by hundreds of retainers, knights, and noblemen, tried to outvie the other in the magnificence of display, so that this fête may well be compared with the Field of the Cloth of Gold of the time of Henry VIII of England. Although several hundred thousand guests were present, the provisions prepared for the occasion were on so generous a scale, that, after all had eaten and drunk to their heart’s content, three times as much as had been used still remained.
The bride was attired in a purple robe embroidered in Arabic gold; and it was said, in those days, that the precious stones ornamenting her head-dress were more costly than the crown of the King of England. It is needless to add that the guests for days were regaled with the richest viands and the choicest wines, and, seeing one display after another of the wealth of Bohemia, were dazzled, and returned home to their respective countries with their minds full of the glory of the King of Bohemia.
All the glory that Ottokar enjoyed grew dim at the thought that at his death the dynasty of the Premysls must cease; Ottokar’s Divorce.for his wife Margaret, now fifty-five years of age, had borne him no children. It seems that he had lived in peace with her; but as far as conjugal fidelity is concerned, his character was not above reproach. The object of his illicit love was Agnes, one of Margaret’s maids of honor, by whom he had three children—a son and two daughters. As Agnes was of a noble family, Ottokar tried to obtain a dispensation from the Pope, whereby the children could enjoy all the privileges of legitimacy. The Pope granted the request, but added a proviso that destroyed the very thing that Ottokar had hoped to gain—no illegitimate child was ever to inherit the crown of Bohemia. Failing in this, Ottokar’s last resort was a divorce. This was readily obtained, since Margaret herself was not only willing but anxious to withdraw from a court where she was regarded as an obstacle to the king’s happiness. Having secured his liberty, Ottokar married Kunigunda, the daughter of the Russian prince, Rostislav Michalovic. Some time after, the newly-married couple were crowned with great splendor in St. Vitus Cathedral in Prague. From this time on, Ottokar signed himself King of Bohemia; for although he had been called king by his subjects and by the foreign princes, he himself never assumed the title till after his coronation. His hopes for an heir were realized in this marriage. Kunigunda bore him two children—a son and a daughter.
One of the greatest evils that the Bohemian rulers had to contend with was the continual interference in their affairs by the German emperors.Ottokar’s Fall. But during the reign of Ottokar II, the empire had become so demoralized that it seemed on the verge of ruin, and Ottokar, taking advantage of this, was able to raise his country to such power and greatness as had never before been done by any other ruler. This interval of freedom, however, was not lasting, and Premysl Ottokar had cause to regret that he had declined the imperial crown when it had been offered him. As long as Richard of Cornwall occupied the imperial throne, Bohemia did not have much to fear from Germany; but when he died, in 1272, affairs immediately assumed a threatening aspect. The German princes now cast their looks about to find a man for an emperor, who should help them to humble the pride of the Bohemian: prince, and who, at the same time, should not stand in the way of their own aggrandizement. They found such a prince in Rudolph, the Count of Hapsburg, who, having some small possessions in Switzerland and Suabia, was too weak to assume any great authority over his constituents, and, moreover, agreed to wrest from the kingdom of Bohemia its recently acquired territories—Austria, Styria, and Carinthia. While this election was going on, Ottokar was out of the country engaged in another war with the Hungarians; but his office of elector was usurped by Louis of Bavaria, his most inveterate enemy. As soon as he learned of the election of Rudolph, he made peace with the enemy, and hastened home, and at once entered his protest against the election as being unlawful, since he, one of the rightful electors, was not present. For some time he was sustained in this by the Pope; but Rudolph, being a man of much diplomacy, soon succeeded in winning that prelate to his side. The Bohemian king was cited to appear before the newly-elected emperor to explain why he had not already come to swear his allegiance. Premysl Ottokar refusing to obey the summons, Rudolph declared his possessions as falling to the empire, and himself as being the sovereign lord of Bohemia and Moravia.
Premysl Ottokar now found himself surrounded by the greatest difficulties. His nobles, instead of standing by him in the hour of need, basely deserted him, rejoicing that now had come the time when they could satisfy their own private desire for revenge. They had never forgiven him for depriving them of the illegally obtained crown lands. Then, too, Premysl’s State policy constantly aimed at centralization of power, which was directly opposed to the interests of the upper classes. Then it was said that the lords hated him because he showed much favor to the Jews and the Germans.
Rudolph made very extensive preparations for war, being sustained by the princes of the empire, who willingly sent large forces to his aid. Besides this, he secured the alliance of the King of Hungary, who was glad of the opportunity to help to humble the pride of his old enemy. The Hungarian army was to invade Moravia and Austria, while the imperial army marched into Bohemia.
The Bohemian king, surrounded by thankless and disloyal lords, could raise but a small army as compared with that of the emperor; yet he did not lose heart, but did the very best he could with the means at his command. The Hungarians, according to agreement, invaded Moravia, marching with little opposition as far as Vienna. Here they were met by Rudolph’s army, who, instead of going first to Bohemia, had also marched directly to Vienna. While Premysl Ottokar was marching in pursuit of the imperial army, a conspiracy broke out among some of the first lords of the kingdom, who at once commenced to devastate the estates and cities of the king. This unexpected blow decided the fate of the unfortunate king. By this time his army was reduced to but 20,000, while that of Rudolph was five times as large. Seeing that a battle at such fearful odds would be but useless bloodshed, Ottokar agreed to make peace, the terms of which were very hard indeed. Premsyl was obliged to give up all his possessions except Bohemia and Moravia, which he received as fiefs from the emperor. In addition to this, it was agreed that Václav, the only son of Ottokar, should marry the daughter of Rudolph, and Hartman, the son of the latter, the daughter of the Bohemian ruler. By this double marriage, Rudolph hoped that he might secure Bohemia to his own house, in case the line of the Premysls should die out. It must be added that the betrothed parties were mere children, consequently the marriage was not to take place till many years after. As hard as were the above terms for the Bohemian king, there was one clause in the treaty that was even more grievous. The emperor, desiring to take the rebellious lords of Bohemia under his protection, declared them his own vassals, who were answerable for their actions only to him, and not to the King of Bohemia. This was virtually destroying the independence of the country, making it a mere province of the emperor’s other possessions. After much negotiation, which, however, led to no results, the emperor refusing to give up his claims to the loyalty of the lords of Bohemia, Ottokar was driven to desperation, and so began to prepare for another war.
In this war the princes of the realm did not respond so heartily to the call of their emperor to furnish troops; nevertheless, he was able to raise a much larger army than Ottokar, who had only the princes of Silesia to aid him. A decisive battle was fought upon the very grounds where Premysl Ottokar had won such a brilliant victory over the Hungarians in the earlier part of his reign. But in those days the army of the king fought as one man; while now, there was division—treachery in the camp. During the action, while the tide seemed to be turning in favor of the Bohemians, one of the chief lords cried that all was lost, and that who could, should save his life. This caused a panic; Premysl Ottokar, seeing that all was lost, plunged, with some of his faithful followers, into the thickest battle, and fell pierced by many swords. The defeat of the Bohemians was complete. Of the 30,000 met engaged in the battle, 12,000 were left upon the field (1278). Some personal enemies of the fallen king, finding his body, tore off the clothing, and brutally mutilated it. When Rudolph afterwards saw the body, he gazed with consternation upon all that now remained of one who, in life, had been the greatest ruler of his time.
When the news of the fall of Ottokar reached Bohemia, the common people were filled with sorrow. Premsyl Ottokar had been a good and just ruler, and had often taken up the cause of the poor against the wealthy classes that oppressed them; and this very virtue in him led, ultimately, to his ruin.
The death of the king brought the country into a state of anarchy. The selfish lords, caring nothing for the people, did nothing to oppose the approach of the enemy, and thus Rudolph marched through Moravia without any let or hindrance, leaving misery and death behind him. Among the distinguished prisoners in his train was the Bohemian queen, with her seven-year-old Václav.
The imperial army marched into Bohemia as far as Kuttenberg. Here they were met by some Bohemian lords with a small force, and negotiations for peace were entered upon. It was agreed that the emperor should hold Moravia for five years, and that Bohemia should be governed by regents until Václav, the son of Ottokar, should be of age. To perpetuate his hold upon the two countries, the agreement entered upon with Ottokar concerning the double wedding of the royal children was again renewed; and lest something should again happen to prevent carrying out the plan, the marriage ceremony was actually performed. Guta, the daughter of Rudolph, was married to Václav, and Agnes, the sister of Václav, to Rudolph’s son, of the same name. As none of the children were more than ten years old, they still remained with their parents, Václav living with his mother in Prague.
Otto of Brandenburg was made regent of Bohemia, and appointed guardian of the young prince.
OTTO OF BRANDENBURG.
After the departure of Rudolph from Bohemia, the greatest disorder and misery prevailed. The regent filled the land with swarms of favorites brought from Brandenburg, whose interest in the country extended no further than their own purses. These favorites held the most lucrative positions; but, not being satisfied with their incomes, they got money from the people by the most cruel extortions.
The native lords added to the state of anarchy that prevailed by forcibly seizing the estates that had been given them by Václav I, but taken away by his son, Premysl Ottokar. Instead of putting down such disturbances, Otto encouraged them, since they gave him the opportunity to interfere and obtain rich rewards from those enjoying his favor. Not satisfied with this, he plundered the churches and monasteries of their wealth, enriching thus his own estates in Germany. Entering into an understanding with some of the native lords, he deprived the queen of her estates, using the income for his own benefit; and finally went so far as to imprison both her and Václav in a strong fortress, where she was kept under a strong guard, and deprived of all the comforts to which she had been accustomed. A Diet having been called, the nobles tried to obtain the liberty of the queen, but to no purpose; Otto, as guardian and regent, claimed the right to keep them in confinement. The queen finally succeeded in making her escape, whereupon she fled to Moravia; but the young prince was left behind to pine in solitude all alone.
The native lords, seeing that the condition of the country was growing worse and worse, and that the foreign adventurers were becoming rich at the expense of the native lords and citizens, began to hold meetings, and secretly to prepare to cast off the foreign yoke. The facts transpiring, Otto took the young prince and fled with him to Brandenburg. Rudolph, now fearing that Otto had some evil design against his youthful son-in-law, decided to come into the country himself to settle the difficulties. It was decided that Otto should still remain the guardian of the prince, but that the latter should be sent to Prague, the government promising to pay 15,000 pounds silver for his release. To restore the country to peace, all the Germans that had been brought to the country by the regent were now ordered to leave within three days under a penalty of death. The lords who had taken possession of the crown estates were ordered to give them up, and if they had any claims upon them, to seek redress by process of law. By these means peace was again restored; but the evil effects of the state of anarchy were not so easily obliterated.
In the state of anarchy, many of the peasants fled to the woods to escape with their lives, the fields lay neglected, and a fearful famine was the result. The dead and dying lay everywhere, uncared for and unburied, and pestilence was soon added to the list of horrors that the country was passing through. The winter of 1281–1282 was one of extreme misery. About 600,000 persons perished. The following year the land was blessed with an abundant harvest, and, order and security being restored, the country soon began to recuperate its wonted strength.
THE REGENCY OF ZAVIS OF FALKENSTEIN.
In the year 1283, Prince Václav, then twelve years of age, came back to Prague, to the great joy of all the people, who looked upon him as the one who was to restore the country to its former peace and prosperity. Being still too young to rule, the government was placed into the hands of those nobles who had taken the most active measures for the release of the young prince. At this time, his mother, Kunigunda, returned from Moravia, bringing with her the powerful Lord Zavis, of Falkenstein, to whom she had for some time been secretly married. This nobleman, in a short time, won such an ascendency over the young Prince, that he was chosen chief chancellor, and his favorites were given almost all the other offices of profit and trust. This again brought the country upon the verge of civil war, and Rudolph again came to the country to restore peace. It seems that the trouble was settled in favor of Falkenstein; for soon after, he celebrated his wedding with the queen, and then, as stepfather of Václav, and chancellor, he assumed entire control of the government. On the whole, it may be said that he ruled well, putting down, with a strong hand, the unruly nobles, as well as the bands of robbers that infested the country. He protected the interests of the crown by compelling some lords to give up the estates they still held; but, at the same time, he did not scruple himself to take possession of vast estates that did not rightfully belong to him. Queen Kunigunda having died, Falkenstein, claiming to be her heir, held cities and fortresses that had formerly belonged to her while Queen of Bohemia, but which she had no legal right to will away to any one outside of the royal family.
Falkenstein’s policy not only roused the jealousy of the nobles, but also that of the emperor, who feared that the young Václav would have more regard to his wishes than to those of his father-in-law, and therefore he determined, if possible, to put an end to the government of Falkenstein. To win the favor of Václav, he resigned the government of Moravia as soon as the five years were out for which he was to hold the country. Then he offered to bring to Václav his wife, if he would agree to dismiss Falkenstein; and as the young prince had for some time been very desirous to see her, he was easily persuaded to send away that nobleman. Falkenstein, hearing of the plots against him, resigned his office, and departed to his castle of Furstenberg, where, shortly after, he took another wife, the sister of the King of Hungary.
About a year after this, there were great rejoicings in the Furstenberg castle. A son had been born to Falkenstein, The Death of Falkenstein.and grand preparations were made for the christening, to which were invited both Václav and many distinguished noblemen. The enemies of Falkenstein now saw an opportunity to revenge themselves upon him, which they did in a most infamous manner. They made Václav believe that the friendship of Falkenstein was not sincere; that he had invited him to the christening to get him into his power, so that he could murder him. They, therefore, advised Václav to pretend to accept the invitation, but to ask Falkenstein to come to him to Prague, and that then the whole party would return together to Furstenberg. Falkenstein, not suspecting treachery, came to Prague, and was immediately seized and cast into prison. He then received orders to give up all the estates that had formerly belonged to the crown, and that he had illegally obtained. Refusing to comply with the demand, he was taken to the white tower, and there kept in close confinement.
Falkenstein had numerous friends and relatives among some of the most powerful noblemen of the kingdom. These now took up his cause, securing the aid of the King of Hungary and the Prince of Breslau, and commenced a war with the young king. Václav secured the aid of his father-in-law, who sent an army to Bohemia under the command of his son Rudolph.
The friends of Falkenstein remaining in rebellion, Rudolph gave the young king some bloody counsel. He advised him to have Falkenstein carried from fortress to fortress, calling upon his friends to surrender, and, in case of refusal, to threaten to have the noble prisoner beheaded before their very eyes. The advice was followed, and several fortresses thus fell into the hands of the king; but when they arrived at Frauenberg, near Budweis, where the brother of the prisoner was in command of the garrison, he refused to surrender, not believing that Václay would carry out so cruel a threat. Falkenstein also refusing to consent to give up the fortress, the king ordered him to be executed upon the meadow in the sight of his brother. The rebellious lords were overcome, and the estates in question were all restored to the crown.
For a long time, Václav’s mind was disturbed by the thought of this cruel deed; but, finally, he succeeded in quieting his conscience by giving a part of the wealth of his victim to build a beautiful monastery at Zbraslav, about a mile from Prague.
KING VÁCLAV II.
At the time of the murder of Falkenstein, King Václav was nineteen years of age. Owing to the hardships that he had endured during the guardianship of Otto of Brandenburg, whose aim seemed to have been either to kill the prince gradually, or at least leave him undeveloped in mind and body, Václav was of a timid disposition, small in stature, and delicate in health. Nevertheless, he proved to be a very good ruler. Being endowed by nature with many good qualities, as soon as he was at liberty he applied his mind to learning, especially to the study of such subjects as should enable him to restore his country to its former prosperity.
The good effects of the just administration of laws soon began to be felt, and the condition of the peasants was greatly improved. One of the main sources of wealth to the country were the silver-mines at Kuttenberg, which were greatly developed during the reign of Václav II. Having an abundance of silver, King Václav ordered good money of standard purity to be coined. These were called groats, or groschen, sixty being counted to a pound of silver. The coinage of money belonged exclusively to the rulers of countries, who often abused the privilege, both by making poor money and by frequent changes. Whenever new coins were minted, the people were ordered to return the old, always at a discount, and thus the frequent changes were a source of revenue to the ruler, but an intolerable hardship to the people. Václav did away with this evil by ordering good money to be coined, that remained in circulation, not only in his own country, but was gladly taken as legal tender in all other European States.
During this time the country known afterwards as Poland, was composed of several principalities, the rulers of which were at war with each other. Václav made King of Poland.As their quarrels showed no signs of being settled, through the instrumentality of Gryfina, the aunt of Václav, the government was offered to him, and thus Bohemia and Poland were united under one crown. Later, similar troubles arising in Hungary, Václav was also offered the crown of that country; but he refused it in favor of his son, who was therefore made King of Hungary.
King Václav was a devoted son of the Church. Being immensely wealthy, he endowed churches and monasteries, granting many privileges to the priesthood. He was also exceedingly fond of show. He aimed to have his court equal in splendor to any court in Europe. During his coronation, in 1297, the feasts and public entertainments were on so grand a scale as had never been seen in Bohemia before. To enable everybody to have a share in the good things provided, a well was improvised by St. Havel’s Church where wine instead of water flowed free for all.
King Václav had a great deal of trouble with his brother-in-law Albert. In 1291, Rudolph died, and Albert immediately began to take measures to be elected king of the Romans, the title Emperor of Germany being for some time discontinued. Having behaved toward Václav in a very domineering manner, the latter opposed the election, and thus Adolph of Nassau became the successful candidate. This brought on a war between the rival kings; and finally, through the mediation of Guita, Václav’s wife, the brothers-in-law were reconciled, and Albert secured the crown. But the young queen dying in 1298, the old state of things soon returned. Notwithstanding all of Václav’s partiality to the Church, he did not escape having a quarrel with the Pope, that prelate taking the part of Albert against Václav. Albert ordered Václav to give up the crowns of Hungary and Poland, since he had accepted them without his consent. He further demanded that he transfer to him for the term of six years the silver-mines of Kuttenberg, or, if not, pay him the sum of 80,000 pounds silver, since, as vassal of the emperor, he was in duty bound to pay tithes from the mines, which for so many years he had neglected to do.
As Václav refused to comply with these demands, war was declared. The king hastily collected an army, marched into Hungary, and took his son Václav, together with all the crown jewels, back to Bohemia with him. Albert, in the meantime, had invaded Bohemia, marching directly to Kuttenberg, where the silver, doubtless, tempted his cupidity. The city was, however, well defended by some Bohemian lords, so that all the efforts of Albert to obtain possession of it proved unavailing. Many of his soldiers died of various diseases, said to have been caused by drinking water from a spring that the miners had poisoned. When Václav’s army was on the march to help the besieged, Albert became alarmed, and returned back to Austria. The following year preparations were made to continue the war; but Václav was taken ill and shortly after died, being but thirty-four years of age.
VÁCLAV III.
Václav III, although already King of Hungary, at the death of his father was but sixteen years of age, yet he ascended his father’s throne without any opposition. King Albert sent messengers to Prague to negotiate for peace, which was readily granted, Václav III giving up Eger and Meissen to Albert, who at the same time agreed not to interfere in his possessions in Poland and Hungary.
King Václav III soon disappointed the hopes of the people. He had, indeed, been endowed by nature with many gifts of mind and heart, but he also possesed a natural inclination to all manner of dissipation. Surrounding himself with young men reckless as himself, he spent his nights in card-playing, drinking, wandering about the streets, and indulging in the lowest debauchery. While under the influence of liquor, he was very generous, and gave away the crown estates to his favorites, as if it were but a pastime. Shortly after making peace with Albert, he gave away the crown of Hungary to his friend Otto, the Duke of Bavaria. He doubtless would have disposed of Poland in an equally summary manner, had he not been awakened to a sense of duty by the earnest exhortations of the Abbot of Zbraslay, who had formerly been one of the chief counselors of King Václav II. As rebellion had broken out in Poland, he raised an army and began his march into that country; but his career was cut short by the hand of an assassin (1306). The murderer being immediately put to death, it was never ascertained whether it was an act of private revenge, or whether he had been hired to commit the deed by some of the political enemies of Václav.
THE BOHEMIAN STATE UNDER THE PREMYSLS.
King Václav III was the last male descendant of the ancient house of Premysl and Libuse, that had ruled over Bohemia for almost six centuries. The government of Krok and his daughter Libuse had bound the various petty princes under one head, but not very closely. In still more ancient times, the government had been mostly patriarchal, and the various dukes, being descendants of the ancient families, were very jealous of their liberties, and would tolerate no encroachments upon their rights. The relations existing between the ruling family and the people constituted the law of the land. Boleslav the Terrible (935–967) did a great deal for the centralization of power by taking possession of the public lands, also by various arbitrary measures that increased his own wealth at the expense of his subjects. The power of the rulers increased until Premysl Ottokar I secured the title of king for himself as well as for all Bohemian rulers that should come after him.
The legislative power was in the hands of an Assembly and of the king; the executive belonged to the king alone, while the judicial was independent of him.
The expenses of the government and the court were defrayed from the income of the crown estates; and when this did not suffice, the Assembly voted taxes, which, therefore, came at irregular intervals. In the earlier stages of the country’s growth, the Assembly consisted of all and any free citizens that chose to come; but when it reached the dignity of being called a State Diet, it was restricted to a few of the privileged classes. These were known as the States, and consisted of the nobility, the clergy, and the knights. Premysl Ottokar I added to this the fourth estate; viz., the citizens—inhabitants of royal cities.
At first there was no difference in the laws for the large land-owners—or noblemen, as they were called—and the small land-owners, or sedlacy; but in the course of time the nobility became a privileged class, and the rights of the poor people were continually encroached upon until they were reduced to servitude. This servitude meant several days of labor in the week for the lord, and many other tasks that, at times, were very grievous.
The nobility, in consideration of doing military service, were exempt from taxation, which, for that reason, fell all the more heavily upon the common people.
The conquest of territory was an affair of the crown, carried on at the expense of the king, or by the aid of such noblemen as willingly gave him their assistance.
The power of the government was limited by two outside forces, that of the German emperor and the Pope. The King of Bohemia, again, was one of the seven electors of the emperor The emperor claimed feudal sovereignty over the country, enforcing his claim whenever it was for his interest to do so. As was the case in all European countries in those ages, the Pope and priesthood, together with the various orders of monks, exerted a wide and powerful influence. In the earlier history of Christianity this influence was good; but as the Church grew strong in worldly power, it grew weak spiritually, and the monasteries, instead of being the seats of learning, became the dens of wickedness.
Education, at this time, was mostly confined to the clerical profession. Václav III wished to establish a higher institution of learning in Prague; but the nobility opposed this, claiming that, with such superior educational advantages, the clergy would become so powerful that they would regard themselves as above the nobility. The schools were always built in connection with the churches and monasteries.
RUDOLPH OF AUSTRIA, AND HENRY OF CARINTHIA.
When King Václav II died, he left, besides one son, four daughters, the eldest of whom, Anna, was married to Henry, the Duke of Carinthia. When Václav III undertook the expedition to Poland, he left the government in the hands of this duke. When the news of the king’s assassination reached Bohemia, some of the nobles thought it advisable to elect Duke Henry to the throne; others preferred Rudolph, the son of Albert, who had succeeded his father in the empire. Before definite action could be taken, the emperor declared that, as Bohemia was a feudal dependency of the empire, he could dispose of it as he saw fit; so he gave it to his son Rudolph. To enforce this claim, he invaded the country with a large army, and the Assembly, partly from choice and partly from necessity, accepted Rudolph as their king, if he would consent to marry one of the Bohemian princesses. He immediately espoused Elizabeth of Poland, the widow of Václav II. This was the beginning of the dynasty of the House of Hapsburg in Bohemia.
Rudolph reigned in Bohemia less than a year. Being surrounded by German favorites, and always consulting the wishes of his father rather than those of the native noblemen, he was hated more and more, and a revolt would doubtless have taken place but for his timely death, which took place while he was besieging the fortress of an unruly noble.
It had been agreed that, should Rudolph die without male heirs, the crown should fall to his brother Frederick. The latter had many friends in the country, among whom the most powerful was Marshal Tobias of Bechyn. But the old candidate, Duke Henry of Carinthia, also had many friends, and thus the election proved to be one of the most exciting ever known in the country. Although Marshal Tobias was ill at the time, he was so zealous for the Austrian succession that he had himself carried into the hall, and there defended the claims of the house of Austria with so much yehemence that he incurred the wrath of most of the Bohemian lords. He charged the noblemen with having the interests of the country so little at heart that they would elect a weak ruler, who could not cope with the enemies of the country. When the lords ordered him to be silent, and not insist upon the election of a foreigner and an enemy, he replied scornfully: “If you insist upon having a king of your own people, go to the village of Stadic; there, among the peasants, you may possibly find some old uncle of the family of Premysl. Bring him here, and place him upon the royal throne.” This slurring reference to the humble origin of their kings, roused the wrath of the lords to the highest pitch. Ulric of Lichtenberg sprang up, and, without a word of warning, plunged his sword into the breast of the unfortunate man. Other acts of violence followed. The friends of Austria fled for their lives, leaving the field clear to the adherents of the Duke of Carinthia, who was elected without any further opposition.
In the meantime Moravia had accepted Frederick as their king, and Albert immediately sent an army to help his son to gain the Bohemian crown; but all these preparations for war came to naught by the death of Albert, who was murdered by his own nephew, to whom he had refused to give the estates that rightfully belonged to him.
At the news of the election of Henry, there were great public rejoicings, the people showing much confidence in the good-will and ability of the new ruler. But all these hopes were doomed to a bitter disappointment; for King Henry soon showed that Marshal Tobias was entirely correct in the estimate of his character; he was weak, and totally unfit to govern.
In the beginning of his reign serious troubles arose between the citizens of some of the large towns and the nobles; but King Henry looked on in abject helplessness, doing nothing whatever either to prevent or settle the quarrels. He felt a repugnance to everything that required active exertion, and spent most of his time in eating and drinking. In his reckless generosity he gave away estate after estate, until his own income was so small that he could not set a good table. Then, being reduced to want, he did not scruple to adopt cruel and unlawful measures to extricate himself out of his difficulties. At last the people neither feared nor loved him, and the lords began to discuss the necessity of deposing him, and electing another king in his place.
At this time there lived at court a young woman who attracted general attention on account of her beauty and intelligence. To unusual wisdom and penetration of mind she added a fearless spirit and true, unfeigning patriotism. Taking an intelligent interest in public affairs, she showed much concern at the sad state in which her country was found. As might be supposed, she belonged to the royal family, and was no one else than Elizabeth, the second daughter of King Václav II.
King Henry soon perceived that, on account of her good qualities, she might prove dangerous to him; consequently he selected a suitable partner from among his lords, and tried to persuade her to an early marriage. But she declined all such offers, doubtless thinking that there was something higher in store for her. In this she was not disappointed. The nobles finally decided to depose Henry, and to set Elizabeth upon the throne, not as an independent ruler, but as the wife of Prince John, of Luxemburg, the son of the German emperor. A deputation was sent for this purpose to the German court, and the marriage was agreed upon, though the emperor showed some reluctance on account of the extreme youthfulness of his son, who was but fourteen, while Elizabeth was eighteen years of age.
This was indeed a strange turn in the affairs of the State. Not long before, a Bohemian nobleman had been openly murdered because he dared espouse the cause of the house of Austria, and now a deputation of Bohemian lords go to the German court to implore the emperor to let his fourteen-year-old boy rule over them. And yet the principle of desiring a native to rule over them was a true one; and it would have been well for the country had their leaders been consistent, and now had chosen a native, rather than a German.
The Princess Elizabeth had endured many a slight and hardship from her royal brother-in-law; and, indeed, for a while it was feared that he cherished evil designs against her, and she was placed under the protection of the city of Nimburg, that had been founded by her father. Now, when she was betrothed to Prince John, it seemed that her trials had ended, and that a life of happiness and usefulness to her nation was opening before her. The marriage was to be celebrated at Spires, where the German king and queen, with all their court, were waiting the arrival of the bride. The emperor met her at the threshold, and, giving her his right hand while he held his son with the Ieft, he said, deeply moved: “Welcome, royal child of Bohemia! Thou hast thus far been an orphan; henceforth thou shalt be my daughter, and I shall be thy father. Here is my only son, thy future husband. Forget the trials thou hast endured at home, and rejoice with us!” Queen Margaret stood by, impatient for the moment when she could embrace her new daughter. At this loving reception the bystanders were moved to tears.
After the marriage, which was celebrated with great splendor, King John went with an army to Bohemia to win the crown that had been offered him; for, however weak and dissipated King Henry was, it was not expected that he would lay down his honors without a struggle, which supposition proved to be well founded. Calling to his assistance Frederick, the Margrave of Meissen, King Henry prepared for a stout defense of his rights. For some time John did not dare approach Prague, but captured some cities in the southern part of Bohemia; but finally he turned his march to the capital, the gates of which were opened to him through the treachery of some lords. King Henry, seeing that all was lost, left the country.
KING JOHN OF LUXEMBURG.
After the departure of King Henry from Prague, a Diet was immediately called, in which the lords took the oath of allegiance to their new king; and John, as a ruler of a new dynasty, gave a written agreement promising to preserve the liberties of the country. As this was the first document of the kind ever given by a King of Bohemia, some of the provisions deserve special notice: The king promised to call no foreigners into the land to be his officers and counselors; he was forbidden either to give away or sell any of the crown estates to foreigners; in case of the death of some of his subjects, the king was to lay no claim to their inheritance, but all such inheritance was to fall to the relatives of the deceased, and only in default of these, to the crown; no Bohemian lord was ever to be ordered to go on any military expedition out of the country; the king was to impose no taxes except for his coronation and to raise the dowry for daughters of the house royal; and all such taxes were to be according to a fixed rate.
After this agreement, the coronation was held, and King John established in the government.
Although one of the articles of the royal document provided for the exclusion of all foreigners from the government, nevertheless, because of the extreme youthfulness of the king, the emperor gave him several German lords to be his counselors. The Bohemian lords did not object to this, since the chief of these was Peter, the Archbishop of Mayence, who had been greatly loved and honored by Václav II. Later, when the German lords began to grow too domineering, King John was held to the agreement, and ordered to dismiss them.
When the nobles had established King John and Queen Elizabeth upon the throne of Bohemia, they imagined that they had done their country a good service, and that his reign would be an era of peace and prosperity to all the people. These hopes, however were doomed to the bitterest disappointment. In the whole history of the country, the government of King John of Luxemburg was unquestionably one of the worst; and in regard to private life, a more unfortunate marriage could scarcely have been contracted; and, doubtless, the domestic troubles in the royal family were, to some extent, the cause of the public disturbances.
Although Queen Elizabeth was a very beautiful woman, who would have graced any court in Europe, the boy husband was too undeveloped either to appreciate her noble qualities or comprehend the duties and sacredness of married life. He soon grew tired of her, and began to take long journeys to various countries in Europe, neglecting both his wife and the government. His ideal seemed to be a knight-errant, who wandered about the world in search of adventures. His exploits at tournaments made him famous all over Europe. He was especially popular at the French court, which was due partly to his lavish generosity, and partly because he was bound by ties of relationship to the French king, the latter having married his sister Mary. While the French lords and ladies sounded his praises to the skies, his own subjects cursed him, calling upon Heaven to deliver them from his tyrannous exactions. He cared so little for his kingdom and his family that, most probably, he would have staid away altogether, had he not been obliged to return, from time to time, to replenish his purse. His income proving insufficient to carry on his extravagant life, he resorted to all manner of extortions, not scrupling to rob his own household, so that, at times, they suffered for the necessaries of life.
The follies of the king reached a climax, when, being in need of funds, he tried to exchange the kingdom of Bohemia for a petty province upon the Rhine. The queen, refusing to give her consent, brought upon herself the wrath of her truant husband, who treated her worse than before
At this time one of the most powerful lords of the kingdom was Henry of Lipa. For some time he had ruled Moravia as the regent of John; but his haughtiness was such that he offended the queen, through whose influence he was removed. For a while civil war raged as the result of this. Finally the offended lord was reinstated in his office and reconciled to the king, but hating the queen all the more.
Elizabeth’s refusal to consent to the bartering away of her country, although approved of by all the lords, nevertheless was now used as a pretext to set the king against her. Lord Henry succeeded in making him believe that Elizabeth aimed to deprive him of the crown in favor of her son Václav, a child three years old. King John hurried to Bohemia in great wrath, seized the unsuspecting queen, and cast her in prison in the city of Melnik. The infant son was sent, with two nurses, to the fortress of Loketsky, and there kept in a dark tower for two months. Finally the queen was rescued by some lords, and taken back to Prague, where a suitable residence was provided for her. Two years later (1321), a reconciliation was effected between the royal couple, but it was not of long duration. The lords unfriendly to the queen succeeded in rousing the king against her, and this time she was obliged to flee for her life. She found refuge at the court of Bavaria, the Duke of Bavaria having been betrothed to her oldest daughter. Margaret. The boy Václav was then taken to the court of France, where he remained for many years. At his confirmation he was named Charles, alter his uncle Charles, the King of France, and it is by this name that he is known in history.
Two years after the queen’s flight to Bavaria, King John, learning of her innocence, gave her permission to return to Bohemia.
Queen Elizabeth, however, was not blameless. She possessed an exceedingly proud and haughty disposition, was very jealous of honors and dignities that she thought rightfully belonged to her, and unrelenting in her vengeance against those who offended her in this respect. For many years there was trouble in the land on account of the rivalship between Queen Elizabeth and Elizabeth of Poland, widow of Václav Il.[1] Elizabeth of Poland held her court at Hradec (Königgratz), and was spoken of as the Queen of Hradec, in distinction from the Queen of Bohemia. Lord Henry of Lipa was a favorite of the Queen of Hradec, and both he and that queen were guilty of many a slight against the unfortunate Queen of Bohemia. An example of this was the marriage of Agnes, the daughter of the Queen of Hradec and Václav II, hence half-sister to Elizabeth. This marriage was contracted without the knowledge and consent of the King and Queen of Bohemia, and consequently, to say the least, was a lack of courtesy equal to an insult. Both the king and queen regarded it as such, and the Lord of Lipa, at whose advice the marriage had been contracted, was degraded from his high offices. Several powerful lords taking his part, the country was plunged into civil war. This, however, was not the only war caused by the rivalry between the two queens. On one occasion, when the atrocities committed were too frightful to behold, Queen Elizabeth, instead of relenting and showing some pity for her subjects, who really were not at all to blame, took her children and went to her fortress of Loketsky, where she remained until peace was restored.
The real and imaginary wrongs of Queen Elizabeth, the rivalship between her and the Queen of Hradec, the intrigues of the lords, the wars between them,—all this has furnished rich material for several brilliant historical romances, produced by modern Bohemian novelists.
King John’s continual absence from his country and his constant demand for funds, together with the wars carried on among the various nobles, brought the country to a condition of wretchedness, such as it had not known for a long time. In the absence of some strong hand to govern, the strong oppressed the weak, there being no means of redress. The land was infested with robbers, who plundered the inhabitants without let or hindrance. Sometimes whole villages were destroyed, the inhabitants scattered in all directions, many of whom perished in the woods from starvation. And King John himself became a public robber. His own sources of income having been drained to the last farthing, he robbed the churches of their ornaments, and stealing the crown and the crown jewels from the palace, he sold them, using the money for his own private expenses. In consideration, for some service done the Pope John XXII, he was given permission to collect at one time the tithes that the Pope claimed to be due for three years. This vast sum of money he also appropriated to his own use.
In the darkest hour of the reign of King John, Elizabeth died. She was but thirty-nine years of age, but broken down in health and spirits, Queen Elizabeth’s Death.and forsaken by all except her seven-year-old daughter. As the dawn of her life had been glorious, so her sun now went down in the utmost gloom.
In 1333, three years after the death of Gueen Hlizabeth, a new day seemed to dawn for the poor, beggared kingdom of Bohemia. Prince Charles.King John, betaking himself to his county of Luxemburg, sent into Bohemia his son Charles, then seventeen years of age, to be his regent.
Charles, although young in years, was old in wisdom and experience. The French court, which to his father had been but the theater for the display of his chivalric qualities, proved to the son a school where he learned political economy and statecraft. Grief for the loss of his mother, whom he tenderly loved, and from whom he had been so cruelly separated, doubtless had considerable influence in softening his character and making him grave and thoughtful far beyond his years.
His dignified bearing and conversation soon won the hearts of the people, and this time their confidence was not misplaced.
The first thing that he did was to set in order the royal housekeeping. Like the regents before him, he was still obliged to send a great deal of money to his father; nevertheless he was able, out of the special subsidy granted him by the Diet, to redeem several of the crown estates; and in two years, by dint of great economy, he redeemed ten estates with their fortresses in Bohemia, and six in Moravia. In these he established courts for the regular administration of justice to people of the adjacent territory. He undertook long journeys through the land, often in disguise, diligently seeking to make himself acquainted with the condition and needs of the people.
The palace of Hradschin having been destroyed by fire a few years before, King John, instead of making any effort to rebuild it, preferred to take up his abode in a citizen’s private residence in the Old Town of Prague; but no sooner had Charles seen the ruins than he began to study how the misfortune might be remedied. The lords were helpful to him in this, and soon the palace walls gleamed against the sun, where for a number of years there had been nothing but ruins. The palace being rebuilt, Charles brought over his youthful wife, Blanche, the daughter of the French king.
The popularity of Charles, however, did not please his father; for the lords, that profited by the disturbances in the land, soon succeeded in arousing the suspicions of the jealous king, whom they warned to beware of his son, that his zealous effort to improve the condition of the people was merely to win their good will, so that he might usurp the government. The king immediately deprived Charles of the regency, leaving him only the title of Margrave of Moravia and the income from a single estate. Charles bore the indignity without a murmur, and left the country to help his brother Frederick to protect his estates in Tyrol against the encroachments of the Emperor of Germany.
In the winter of 1337, John, accompanied by his son Charles, went upon an expedition with the German knights against Lithuania. The exposure to the cold and damp weather brought on a disease of the eyes to the king, and afterwards he became totally blind. Nobody in Bohemia pitied him; the people looked upon it as a punishment from Heaven for his misdeeds, and especially for his robbery of their churches.
After the death of Queen Elizabeth, King John had married again; as might be expected, a foreigner, Beatrice of the house of Bourbon. He brought her to Prague with her infant son Václav; but the people manifested no joy at her arrival, on all occasions showing their preference for Charles and his wife Blanche, which so displeased the king that he sent Charles out of the country, and finally departed himself, leaving the goverament in the hands of a regent. At this the people manifested so much displeasure that John, fearing a rebellion, reinstated his son in the government, and, in 1341, declared him his successor.
King John continued to extort money from his kingdom until Charles himself would bear it no longer. In 1342 he gave his father 5,000 pounds of silver, and ordered him not to come into the country again for two years. Doubtless there would have been much trouble, if not civil war, between Charles and his father had the latter remained idle in his county of Luxemburg; but fortunately he went to assist his friend, the French king, against the English, where his ignominious life was ended by a glorious death. This was at the battle of Crecy (1346), which proved so disastrous to the French. When all was lost, the Bohemian lords that had accompanied King John to the war, begged him to flee and save his life; but he replied: “God forbid that a king of Bohemia should ever flee before the enemy!” Then, ordering his horse to be fastened to those of two of his most faithful knights—since, on account of his blindness, he himself could not have directed him—the three rushed into the thickest battle, being immediately cut to pieces by the enemy. Some fifty of the Bohemian knights perished in the same way. Charles, too, was present in this battle; but, being wounded in the earlier part of the action, he was carried from the battle-field by the orders of his father, who, after all, did not wish to leave Bohemia without a ruler. The memorable words of the king became the watchword of Bohemian soldiers; and this, perhaps, was the only legacy that was left to Bohemia by her knightly ruler, King John of Luxemburg.
- ↑ Václav’s second wife, hence not the mother of Elizabeth.