Thoughts on civil liberty, on licentiousness, and faction/Section 9
SECT.IX.
Of the Commonwealth of Rome.
LET us now pass to a Review of the Commonwealth of Rome: In the History and Fate of which, we shall find most abundant Proof of the Truths here laid down, concerning the Power of Manners and Principles, in the Preservation or the Dissolution of public Freedom.
Montesquieu remarks finely, in his Discourse on this Republic, that "more States have perished, thro' a Violation of Manners, than thro' a Violation of Laws[1]. The Reason (though he does not assign it) appears evident on the Principles here given. He who violates established Manners, strikes at the general Foundation; he who violates Law, strikes only at a particular Part of the Superstructure of the State.
In the Republic of Sparta, we have seen the original State of Manners and Principles conspiring strongly to the Preservation of the Republic: In that of Athens, we have seen the original State of Manners and Principles tending no less clearly to its Dissolution.
In analysing the original State of Manners and Principles in the Roman Commonwealth, we shall find a different and intermediate State of Things; mixing the Strength of the Spartan, with the Weakness of the Athenian Institutions; tending first to enlarge and aggrandize the Republic, and in the End to corrupt and destroy it.
The Manners and Principles of early Rome, which tended to enlarge and aggrandize the Republic, were 1. A Love of their Country instilled into their rising Youth: Formed chiefly on the Power of Custom; and more particularly on the warlike Genius of the State. Their Annals abound with so many Instances of this grand Passion, that present Times stand amazed, and with Difficulty credit their Story. 2. This Passion, founded on an early, though not a prescribed Education, was so strengthened by their religious System, that till the fatal Entrance of the Doctrine of Epicurus, no Roman was ever known to have violated his Oath.[2]
3. Their Principle of Honour coincided with that of their Religion. It was so strong, at the Time of the first Formation of the Republic, that the Punishment of Disgrace was judged sufficient to deter the People from a Violation of the Laws. "When a Delinquent was cited before the People (saith Livy) the Valerian Law ordained only, that he should be branded as infamous.[3]"
4. From the Truths laid down above, it appears, that the Principle of natural Conscience must of Course co-operate with these, for the Confirmation of civil Freedom. The Force of this Principle is no less conspicuous in the early Periods of Roman Liberty: It arose even into a ferocious Pride of Virtue, independent of all outward Testimony, which hath distinguished the great Names of ancient Rome, from Those of every other People upon Earth.
5. To these we must add the Equality of Property, the Mediocrity of Possession, the Simplicity of Life, which prevailed in early Rome; all these were the Outworks that guarded the internal Strength of Manners and Principles; and seemed, like the Institutions of Sparta, to promise an Eternity of Freedom.
But in Spite of all these Foundations of civil Liberty, there were three fatal Circumstances, admitted into the very Essence of the Republic, which contained the Seeds of certain Ruin: While the Tree seemed to flourish in its full Growth and Vigour, These, like Canker-Worms, lay eating at the Root.
The first of these was the Neglect of instituting public Laws, by which the Education of their Children might have been ascertained. This is justly charged by Plutarch, as a capital Defect in Numa's Legislation:[4] This Defect, when once admitted into the Essence of the State, could not easily be rectify'd in succeeding Times: The Principle could only have been effectually infused, at the general Formation of the whole Mass. In Consequence of this Error in the first Concoction, the supporting Principles of Freedom were vague and fluctuating: For Want of this preventing Power, the incidental Vices of a Parent were naturally transmitted to his Children, and thence to future Ages. The rigorous Education of Sparta was a strong Check to the Proneness of human Nature towards Degeneracy and Corruption: Through This, every incidental Vice dy'd with its first Possessor: While the more lax Institution of the Roman Republic, suffered every original Taint in Manners and Principles to be transfused into, and to contaminate succeeding Times.
The second of these was "Their Principle of unlimited Conquest." Their early Passion for War arose from their Necessities. On their first Establishment, they had neither Territory nor Commerce: They lived by Plunder: Hence, the ruling Genius of the State was warlike: Their warlike Genius was unchecked by any other Principle: Hence, unremitted Exercises, unceasing Improvements in Discipline, increasing Valour and Ferocity arose. Thus they attempted to subdue, and thus they subdued the World.
But such an Empire is utterly untenable: Valour may acquire, but cannot maintain it. The Body of such a State is too enormous to be effectually animated by the Soul. This is a Cause of Ruin so clear, that it hath met every Writer's Observation; and therefore needs no farther Proof.
The third Principle of inevitable Destruction, which seems to have been inwrought into the very Essence of the Roman Republic, was the fatal Principle of Change: This is a Cause not so obvious; and therefore may require a farther Investigation.
Montesquieu hath justly observed, that one Cause of the Roman Greatness was "their adopting any Institution or Custom of other Nations whom they conquer'd, provided it was better than their own.[5]" It seems to have escaped the Observation of this great Writer, that the same Principle of Adoption, carried through every Period of the Republic, led the Way to its final Ruin.
For altho' in the early Periods, when Manners were simple, and concurrent Principles were strong, this Spirit of Adoption was confined to Customs that were better than their own; yet in the succeeding Periods, when Manners grew more relaxed, and Principles were weakened, the same Spirit of Adoption opened a Door for the Admission of Customs that were pernicious.
Thus the Admission of Change, which in the virtuous Ages led to the Greatness, in succeeding Times brought on the Destruction of the Republic.
The sagacious Romans soon found the Consequences of this Defect: They saw, that through a Want of original, preventive, and salutary Institutions, bad Manners were creeping insensibly on the State. Hence the Creation of the Censors had its Rise: An Office, which immediately took Cognizance of the Manners of the Citizens.
But this high Office was ineffectual in its End; because it had not Power universally to prevent, but only in Part to remedy the Evil. Hence, while particular and detected Offences only, could be punished by the Censor, the Hearts and Manners of the People were laid open to a general Corruption, from the fatal Principle of Novelty and Adoption.
The Danger arising from this Principle manifestly increased with the increasing Empire: That Identity and Integrity of Manners and Principles, which is the Soul and Security of every free State, gave Way to Manners and Principles wholly dissimilar. New Maxims of Life, new Principles of Religion and Irreligion, of Honour and Dishonour, of Right and Wrong, picked up indiscriminately among the Nations which they conquered, by Degrees infused themselves into the Heads and Hearts of the Roman Citizens.
Here, then, we see the original Foundation of all the Misery and Ruin which ensued. On the Conquest of the luxurious, immoral, and unprincipled Tribes of Greece, the Romans, having no preventive Remedy in the Essence of their State, of Course adopted the Luxury, the Immoralities, the Irreligion, of the conquered People.
"It seems to me (says the excellent Montesquieu) that the Epicurean Sect, which made its Way into Rome towards the Close of the Republic, contributed much to corrupt the Hearts of the Romans. The Greeks had been infatuated with it before them; accordingly, they were sooner corrupt. Polybius tells us, that in His Time, no Greek could be trusted, on the Security of his Oath; whereas, a Roman was inevitably bound by it.[6]"—He adds, "Cyneas having discoursed on the Epicurean System at the Table of Pyrrhus, Fabricius wished that all the Enemies of Rome might hold the Principles of such a Sect.[7]"
Thus, as in the early Periods of the Commonwealth, they had adopted the Virtues, in the later Times they assumed the Vices of the conquered Nations. Thus, by unperceived Gradations, the same Principle, "The Admission of Change, first led to the Greatness, and then to the Ruin of the Republic."
All the particular Consequences that followed, were occasional and inevitable. The Rapacity, the Factions, the civil Wars; the enormous Profligacy of Individuals, the horrible Calamities of the State;—All these are finely pursued by Montesquieu; and were no more than the natural and incidental Effects of this general Cause, "The Loss of Manners and Principles."
Hence, the Progress and Retreat of the Roman Power resembled the Flow and the Ebb of a vast Ocean; which, rowzed from its Bed by central Concussions, overwhelmed and forsook the Earth.