Africa by Élisée Reclus/Volume 2/Chapter 6
CHAPTER VI.
HADAMES.
LTHOUGH included within the political and administrative frontiers of the Turkish possessions, the group of oases of which Ghadames is the centre forms a distinct geographical region, differing in its ethnology, history, usages and commercial relations from Tripolitana properly so called. While the latter forms part of the Mediterranean seaboard, the Ghadames district lies within the area of drainage of the desert, in a basin whose waters never reach the great inland sea. The intermittent stream which rises north-west of the Red Hamada, and which under diverse names reaches the Ghadames oasis, after a course of about 150 miles, has no longer any perceptible channel in the region of dunes stretching beyond that point to the Igharghar basin. The other parallel wadies descending farther north from the southern gorges of the Jebel Nefusa also run dry in the same zone of sands, leaving nothing to indicate their course at a period when they were still running waters. It is probable, however, that all converged in a vast fluvial basin, tributary of the great southern sebkhas of Tunisia.
In this region of the Sahara slope, Ghadames is far from being the only, or even the most important oasis, as regards either the abundance of its waters, or the extent of its palm groves. But its special importance is due neither to its agricultural resources nor to the local industries, but to the commercial enterprise of its inhabitants, who have long been the chief agents in furthering the exchanges between the Mediterranean seaports and the markets of Sudan. From time immemorial Ghadames, the Cydamus of the Romans, has been the starting-point for caravans traversing the sea of sands in the direction of Lake Tsad and the river Niger. This commercial pre-eminence of a small oasis endowed with no exceptional advantages, must be attributed to its position precisely at the converging point of the Cabes and Tripoli route, on the very verge of the desert, between two inhospitable and almost inaccessible regions — to the west the shifting sands, to the east the rocky terraces of the Red Hamada. The advanced station, forming a sort of pass penetrating far into the desert, has become the necessary head-quarters of caravans bound for the Tuareg territory, the Twât and Wed-Draa oases. Thanks to the intermediate station of Rhât on the route to Sudan, it has also been able to compete with Sokna and the towns of Fezzan for the trade with Central Africa. Big textSince the French conquest of Algeria, most of the trans-Saharian traffic, in order to avoid the territory of the Rumi, has been deflected from its natural channel to the Ghadames route, lying scarcely 15 miles from the conventional frontier between the French and Turkish possessions. Further political changes, and especially the development of the railway system, must necessarily involve a still greater displacement of the old commercial highways.
Ghadames lies only 300 miles from Tripoli, and to the nearest point on the coast towards the common frontier of Tripolitana and Tunisia the distance scarcely exceeds 240 miles, a journey for an ordinary caravan of ten or twelve days. Throughout nearly the whole of its extent, this much-frequented trade route is moreover easily traversed, and little exposed to the raids of the Urghamma
marauders on the Tunisian border. Hence Ghadames has been frequently visited by European explorers since the time of Laing, who first reached this place in 1826. Richardson, Dickson, and Bonnemain followed each other towards the middle of the century; Duveyrier resided here in 1860, and two years later a French mission under Mircher studied its geographical features and commercial relations. During his journey to Central Sudan in 1865, Rohlfs made a detour to visit Ghadames, and since then Largeau and several other French explorers have traversed the neighbouring frontier to survey the oasis, which the French annexation of Tunis has brought into still closer relation with the European world.
Physical Features.
The sandy plain of gypsum where Ghadames stands at an altitude of 1,170 feet according to Duveyrier, or of 1,300 according to Vatonne, would present a most 84 NOETH-WEST AFEICA. forbidding aspect, but for the green fringe of palms partly concealing the town, and pleasantly contrasting with the surrounding yellow plain, furrowed here and there with grey or reddish strips. The powdery soil, in which the camel sinks at every step, is strewn with blocks of sulphate of lime, occasionally forming poly- hedric groups, which are intersjjersed with gypsum and quartzose sand iu nearly equal proportions. In the midst of the plain stand the so-called gitrs or kefs, isolated eminences 130 to 160 feet high, and terminating in a table of white chalk, the remains of an upper layer which formerly covered the whole district, but which has been gradually eroded by the ceaseless action of outward and subter- ranean physical agents. It is easy to detect the work of destruction still going on. The superimposed strata of sandstone, carbonate of lime, gypsum, marl, or clay, resist in different degrees the influence of heat and cold, which oscillate between such great extremes in these solitudes ; hence follow irregular movements of expansion and contraction, producing faults in the strata. Water also infiltrating through the porous soil expands and disintegrates certain rocks, the upward pressure causing fractures in the surface layers. Throughout the whole of the Ghadames plateau this action is evident. The ground is covered with small cones upheaved by the thrust of underlying forma- tions ; between these irregular eminences rising in fantastic disorder above the normal level are still visible the uniformly superimposed strata ; the rocks present the most varied aspects, from the solid and compact strata to one of the most complete disintegration. Certain hills still preserving their upper table have been fissured on one side, like burst flour-bags discharging through the rent a stream of sand from the inner rocks, which have been gradually triturated by the alternating temperature. Thus the plateau, at first cut up into isolated eminences, is being transformed into a system of dunes, some of which remain for ages disposed round a more solid central core, whilst in others the rock becomes completely ground to dust, drifting under the action of the winds and merging in the lines of dunes, whose long undulations cover certain parts of the desert. The rocks which best resist those weathering influences are the ferruginous sandstone deposits ; hence in many places the surface, already denuded of the limestone and gypsum formations, is still covered with hard and blackish sandstone masses, which yield a metallic sound under the wayfarer's footsteps. The Ghadames oasis is encircle^ by an earthen rampart 3 J miles in circum- ference, formerly raised against the marauding tribes of tlie desert, but now possessing no defensive value. Broken here and there by broad gaps at some points, especially on the west side, it serves to accumulate the sands, which are thence blown by the winds into the streets and gardens. The town, comprising several quarters, lies in the south-west part of the oasis, where have been sunk the wells on which the inhabitants depend for their supply of water. The chief spring fills a vast basin of Roman construction. Usually known as the fountain in a superlative sense [ain in Arabic, and tit in Berber), it is more specially named the Ain-el-Fers, the "Mare's Spring," or, in the local Temahaq dialect, the Arsh-Shuf, or "Croco- dile's Spring." Its slightly thermal water (85° to 86" F., or about 17° "higher than the mean temperature of the oasis) comes from a natural reservoir lying probably at a depth of 465 feet below the surface; and although containing about twenty grains of salt to the pint, it has no disagreeable taste when allowed to get cold. Multitudes of leeches swarm amid the surrounding aquatic plants.
Besides this spring and the other artesian wells, seven or eight ordinary wells some 65 feet deep yield a liquid with a temperature of not more than 65° F., but so charged with salt as to be undrinkable. With every economy, the water from all
sources scarcely suffices to irrigate some hundred and eighty-five acres, in which are crowded sixty-three thousand palms, and where are also cultivated various fruit-trees and vegetables, all of poor quality except the melons and pistachios. Formerly the whole space of four hundred acres comprised within the ramparts was under cultivation; but during the course of centuries the water supply has fallen off, or else the natives have relaxed their efforts, wearied with the incessant struggle to preserve their lands from the ever-encroaching sands.
In few other districts is the land more subdivided than in the Ghadames oasis, where every head of a family has his separate plot, be it only a single palm, or the
ground on which it grows; hence all land capable of being irrigated commands a price far higher than its productive value. T0P00RA1»HY. 87 Topography. The town of GhadampH presents tbe same constructive features us Siwuh, and the uni'ient Berber cities reachiufj^ as far us Nubia. The streets ure vuulted pussages, udmitting the light only at rure intervuls through upertures in the wulls of the houses. These pussages are used by the men and female slaves alone ; but so dense is the gloom that to prevent collision a warning voice or sound is needed, the men stamping on the ground, the women uttering a sort of plaintive murmur. The better classes never go abroad without a lantern. The houses, either of stone or adobe, consist mostly of a ground floor, serving as a store, and of one story com- prising a central apartment encircled by smaller rooms. The general disposition is the same as in the Moorish houses, only instead of being open to the air the dwellings are lit through a hole in the flat roof. All the terraces, although enclosed by low parapets, communicate with each other, so that the women, for whom this space is exclusively reserved, are able to walk from one end of the quarter to the other ; real streets are even laid down along the houses above the tunnels, set apart for the men and slaves. On the terraces a special market is daily held for the barter of jewellery and textiles, but inaccessible to the men. Grown-up children pass the night abroad, boys in the gardens, on the seats of the cross-roads or in unoccupied houses, girls with some female friend or relation whose husband is from home. The natives of Ghadames are fundamentally of Berber stock, and the current speech closely resembles that of the Tuaregs and of the Siwah, Aujila and Jofra oases. Nevertheless the race is very mixed, both features and complexion betray- ing strains of Arab and Negro blood. The people, who, like the Tuaregs, go abroad either wholly or partly veiled, have regular features ; but they lack the strength and lithe figures of their Algerian neighbours. Most of them are of u lymphatic or nervous temperament, and the stranger is surprised to meet so many with glossy skin, flaccid flesh, lustreless eyes, thick lips, feeble voice. Yet the women are distinguished by really noble features, and a graceful form enhanced by a channing costume. As in most Berber towns, and in the medieval cities of Italy, the population is divided into hostile factions, whose rivalries appear to spring, to a very slight degree, from racial differences. The Boni-Wasit, themselves subdivided into four shueras or secondary groups, hold the southern and eastern parts of the town ; the Beni-Ulid, or Tescu, with two shueras, the north and north-west, the latter devoted mainly to trade, the former chiefly householders and agriculturists. Before the Turkish occupation, both factions often engaged in mortal combat, and although now dwelling peaceably together, such is the force of tradition that they still remain confined to their respective quarters, never exchanging visits or inter- marrying. They meet only on the market-place, or outside the ramparts in the convents of the religious brotherhoods. But many natives of Ghadames will recognise each other as fellow-countrymen only in such remote places as Tripoli, Eano, Timbuktu, visited by them during their trading expeditions. 88 NOETH-WEST AFRICA. Besides the civilised Berbers, the population of Ghadames also comprises members of the neighbouring Arab tribes : Suafas, or immigrants from the Algerian Siif, Negroes from West Sudan, and even Fullahs from the Upper Niger. The descendants of the black slaves constitute a separate group, that of the Atriya, who commonly speak the Ilaussa dialect, but do not enjoy full civic rights. A branch of the Azjar Tuaregs encamp in large numbers on a plateau near the south- west side of the town, of which they are the most faithful allies. But for their co-operation all trade relations between Ghadames and the Tsad and Niger basins would be suspended, and in some respects the inhabitants consider themselves members of the Tuareg confederacy. A Targin chief reduced to want is supported at their expense ; and every Targin, whether free or slave, receives hospitality during the time of his residence in the town. But the prevailing influence amid all these diverse elements is Arab culture, although the Arabs themselves are far from numerous fn Ghadames. The traders, all polyglots, and sufficiently instructed to read and write, use Arabic in their correspondence, and their Berber dialect itself is largely affected by words and expressions drawn from the Koran, No traces have survived of the old Berber alphabet, although there is a local system of numeration by fives, by means of which commercial transactions with distant towns can be kept secret. The produce of the surrounding gardens would scarcely suflfice for the require- ments of the seven thousand residents in Ghadames for a single month ; nor do the few local industries contribute much to the wealth of the people, who depend for their support chiefly on trade. Thanks to their relations with most of the markets in West Africa, they had acquired a certain affluence when the Turkish Government began to hamper their relations with vexatious regulations. Like Murzuk and the other intermediate marts between Tripoli and Sudan, Ghadames has lost much of its prosperity since the restrictions imposed on the slave trade and on the direct traffic with Algeria and Tunis. The native dealers, who have to pay the Turkish Government a yearly impost of £10,000, enjoy a high reputation for probity; their word is alwaj's enough, even in the case o£ transactions involving a credit of several years. When a caravan loses any camels along the trade routes kept open by the friendly Ajar tribe, the loads are left on the spot sometimes for over a year, without any danger of being carried off by casual wayfarers. Owing to the unwarlike character of the people, their caravans, like those of the ancient Carthaginians, are always escorted by mercenaries. At the time of Largeau's second visit in 1878, a guard of ten invalided Turkish soldiers sufficed to enforce respect for the authority of the Sublime Porte. On their trading expeditions meeting people of all beliefs — Mohammedans of diverse sects, Christians, Jews, and Pagans — the Ghadamesians have in general acquired a broad spirit of tolerance, although still strict observers of the Melekite rites. Jews, however, are not suffered to settle in the place, probably owing to professional jealousy. No branch of the widespread Senusi confraternity was established in the oasis till the year 1876. Polygamy is rarely practised in Ghadames itself, although the traders have taken wives in the various cities where they have to reside for any length of time. Amongst the peculiar marriage ceremonies, is the imposition of absolute silence on the bride for the first seven days of the union.
The only local antiquities are the already described Roman reservoir, a bas-relief said to betray Egyptian influences, a few columns and hewn blocks, besides a ruined tower with an inscription in Greek and unknown characters, "perhaps in the Garamantine language," but in any case a precious monument of the commercial relations established at least two thousand years ago between Cydamus and the Hellenic world. Outside the walls Duveyrier discovered a Roman inscription dating from the time of Alexander Severus, a monument of great historic importance, showing that Cydamus, at that time attached to the administration of Lambessa, remained at least two hundred and fifty years under Roman rule after its conquest by Cornelius Balbus in the reign of Augustus.
On the plateau forming the camping-ground of the Azjar Tuaregs stand some shapeless columns, by the natives called El-Esnamen, or "The Idols." According to Duveyrier, these pre- Roman ruins are the remains of Garamantian monuments, perhaps tombs. In the neighbourhood a space of some square miles is covered by the cemetery of Ghadames, in which the older monuments are always respected, and amongst these Roman sepulchral inscriptions may yet be discovered. To the north the isolated dolomitic eminence of Tiikut is crowned by the ruins of a town, whose inhabitants have escaped to Algeria in consequence of a standing feud with their neighbours.
The Derj oasis, lying over 60 miles due cast of Ghadames, in the same area of drainage, might hope to become the commercial centre of the district, if the local traffic depended entirely on the abundance of water and vege tuition. Derj, or the "Step," so named because it occupies the first stage on the Red Hamáda route, is surrounded by plantations containing some three hundred thousand palms, and yielding a far greater supply of dates and other fruits and vegetables than is needed for the local consumption. Hence the Ghadamesians, who from remote times have owned more than half of the trees, draw much of their supplies from Derj.
The inhabitants of the oasis, grouped in four villages, claim some to be Berbers, others Arabs, but are in fact so mixed by crossings with slaves, that they look more like Negroes than Semites or Hamites. In every house a state room is decorated with copper vases representing the price paid for their wives, who pride themselves in displaying all this glittering treasure.
North-east of Ghadames, on the slope of the plateau facing the desert, lie the palm groves of the Sinaun oasis, one of the caravan stations on the route between Ghadames and Tripoli. Rut this oasis is being gradually devoured by the pitiless sands, which are invading the plantations and gardens, filling up the ditches, and encroaching upon the two villages, whose enclosures are already in ruins. A large number of the inhabitants, the Aulad-Bellil, a noble race proud of their descent, have already emigrated to Ghadames.