HABIT
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HABIT
ophy). Daily experience shows that the repetition of
actions or reactions produces, if not always an inclina-
tion, at least an aptitude to act or react in the same
manner. To say that a man is accustomed to a
certain diet, climate, or exercise, that he is an habitual
smoker or early-riser, that he can dance, fence, or
play the piano, that he is used to certain points of
view, modes of thinking, feeling, and willing, etc.,
signifies that owing to past experience he can do now
that which formerly was impossible, do easUy that
which was difficult, or dispense with the effort and
attention which were at first necessary. Like any
faculty or power, habit cannot be known directly in
itself, but only indirectly — retrospectively from the
actual processes which have given rise to it, and pro-
spectively from those which proceed from it. Habit
wUl be considered (I) in general, and then in its most
important (II) physiological, (III) psychological, (IV)
ethical, (V) pedagogical, (VI) philosophical, and
(VII) theological aspects.
I. If an attitude, action, or series of actions resulting from a well-formed and deep-rooted habit is compared with the corresponding attitude, action, or series be- fore the habit was contracted, the following differences are generally observed: (1) Uniformity and regularity have succeeded diversity and variety ; under the same circumstances and conditions the same action recurs invariably and in the same manner, unless a special effort is made to inhibit it ; (2) Selection has taken the place of diflusion; after a number of attempts in which the energy was scattered in several directions, the proper movements and adaptations have been singled out; the energy now follows a straight line and goes forth directly toward the expected result; (3) Less stimulus is required to start the process, and, where perhaps resistance had to be overcome, the slightest cue now suffices to give rise to a complex action; (4) Difficulty and effort have disappeared; the elements of the action, every one of which used to require distinct attention, succeed one another auto- matically; (5) Where there was merely desire, often difficult to satisfy, or indifference, perhaps even repug- nance, there is now tendency, inclination, or need, and the imwonted interruption of an habitual action or mode of thinking generally results in a painful feeling of uneasiness; (6) Instead of the clear and distinct perception of the action in its details, there is only a vague consciousness of the process in its totality, together with a feeling of familiarity and naturalness. In a word, habit is selective, produces quickness of response, causes the processes to be more regular, more perfect, more rapid, and tends to automatism.
From these effects of habit, together with the wide- ness of the field which it covers, its importance is easily inferred. Progress requires flexibility, power to change and to conquer, fixity of useful modifica- tions and the power to retain conquests. Adapta- bility to new surroundings, and facility of processes presuppose the power of acquiring habits. Without them, not only mental functions like reflecting, reason- ing, counting, but even the most ordinary actions like dressing, eating, walking, would necessitate a distinct effort for every detail, consume a great deal of time, and withal remain very imperfect. Hence hal)it has been called a second nature, and man termed a bundle of habits; and, although such expressions, like all aphorisms, may be open to criticism if taken too literally, yet they contain nuich truth. Nature is the common groimdwork of all activities and essentiallv the same in all men, but its special direction and mani- festations, the special emphasis of certain forms of activity together with their manifold individual features, are, for the most part, the results of habits. Speech, writing, skill in its varied applications, in fact every complex action of organism and mind, which are matters of course for the adult or the adept, appear simple only because they are habitual; the child or
the beginner finds how complex they are in reality.
Even in merely physiological functions the influence
of habit is felt: the stomach becomes accustomed to
certain foods; the blood to certain stimulants and
poisons; the whole organism to certain hours for
resting and awaking, to the climate and surroundings.
All mental functions in the adult are the results of
habits, or are modified by them. Habits of thought,
speculative and practical, habits of feelings and will,
religious and moral attitudes, etc., are constantly
shaping man's views of things, persons, and events,
and determine his behaviour toward those who agree
with or differ from him. Observation and reflection
show that the empire of habit is wellnigh unlimited,
and that there is no form of human activity to which
it does not extend. It is hardly possible to exaggerate
its importance; the danger is rather that one may
imder-estimate, or at least fail to fully appreciate it.
Habit is acquired by exercise; in this it tlifters from the instincts and other natural predispositions and aptitudes which are innate. In a series of actions, it begins with the first act, for, if this left no trace what- soever, there would be no more reason why it should begin with the second or any subsequent act. Yet at this early stage the trace or disposition is too weak to be called a habit; it must grow and be strengthened by repetition. The growth of habit is twofold, intensive and extensive, and may be compared to that of a tree which extends its branches and roots farther and farther, and at the same time aeciuires a stronger vitality, can resist more effectively obstacles to life, and becomes more difficult to uproot. A habit also ramifies; its influence, restricted at first to one line of action, gradually extends, making itself felt in a number of other processes. Meanwhile it takes deeper root, and its intensity increases so that to remove or change it becomes a more ami more arduous task.
The main factors in the growth of habit are: (1) The number of repetitions, as every repetition strength- ens the disposition left by previous exercise; (2) their frequency: too long an interval of time allows the disposition to weaken, whereas too short an inter- val fails to give sufficient rest, and results in organic and mental fatigue; (3) their uniformity: at least change must be slow and gradual, new elements being added little by little; (4) the interest taken in the actions, the desire to succeed, and the attention given; (5) the resulting pleasure or feeling of success which becomes associated with the idea of the action.
No general rules, however, can be given for a strict determination of these factors. For instance, how frequently the actions should be repeated, or how rapidly the complexity may be increased, will depend not only on actual psychological factors of interest, attention, and application, but also on the nature of the actions to be performed and on natural apti- tudes and tendencies. Habits decrease or disappear negatively by ab.staining from exercising them, and positively by acting in an opposite direction, antago- nistic to the existing habits.
II. .\11 organic functions are due to, facilitated or modified by, habit. Some habits, like those referring to climate, temperature, certain foods, etc., are purely physiological, the mind contributing little or nothing. For instance, the same dose of alcohol or stimulants might be fatal for some organisms, while it is necessary for those which have been used to it. Or again, a bird, confined in an enclosed place in which the air gradu.illy becomes foul, grows .so far accustomed to the fetid condition of the atmosphere that it may con- tinue to live for several hours after the air has been so poisoned with carbonic acid as to kill almost im- mediately another bird suddenly placed therein. In the acquisition of other physiological habits, especially those of skill and dexterity, psychological factors have a great importance, above all the antecedent idea of the end, which directs the selection of the appropriate
