ARMOUR INSTITUTE 265 ARMSTRONG tion; was a miner in California in 1852- 1856; in the commission business in Mil- waukee in 1856-1863; and later became the head of a large meat-packing con- cern in Chicago. He founded the Ar- mour Mission and the Armour Institute of Technology, both in Chicago; the for- mer at a cost of about $250,000, and the latter with an endowment of $1,500,000, subsequently increased. He died Jan. 6, 1901. ARMOUR INSTITUTE OF TECH- NOLOGY, a coeducational (non-secta- rian) institution, founded in Chicago, 111., by Philip D. Armour, in 1893; reported in 1919: Professors, 67; students, 615; graduates, 1,216; president, F. W. Gun- saulus, D. D. ARMS, a term applied to weapons of offense, which are divisible into two distinct sections — firearms, and arms used without gunpowder or other explo- sive substance. The first arms of of- fense would probably be wooden clubs, then would follow wooden weapons made more deadly by means of stone or bone, stone axes, slings, bows and arrows, with heads of flint or bone, and after- ward various weapons of bronze. Sub- sequently a variety of arms of iron and steel were introduced, which comprised the sword, javelin, pike, spear or lance, dagger, axe, mace, chariot scythe, etc.; with a rude artillery consisting of cata- pults, ballistae, and battering-rams. The most characteristic weapon of the Ro- man legionary soldier was the pilum, which was a kind of pike or javelin, some 6 feet or more in lengfth. The pilum was sometimes used at close quarters, but more commonly it was thrown. The favorite weapons of the ancient Ger- manic races were the battle-axe, the lance, or dart, and the sword. The weapons of the Anglo-Saxons were spears, axes, swords, knives, and maces or clubs. The Normans had similar weaponsj and were well furnished with archers and cavalry. The cross-bow was a comparatively late invention intro- duced by the Normans. Gunpowder was not used in Europe to discharge projec- tiles till the beginning of the 14th cen- tury. Cannon are first mentioned in Eng- land in 1338, and there seems to be no doubt that they were used by the English at the siege of Cambrai in 1339. Tlie projectiles first used for cannon were of stone. Hand firearms date from the 15th century. At first they required two men to serve them, and it was neces- sary to rest the muzzle on a stand in aiming and firing. The first improve- ment was the invention of the match- lock, about 1476; this was followed by the wheel-lock, and about the middle of the 17th century by the flint-lock, which was in universal use until it was super- seded by the percussion-lock, the inven- tion of a Scotch clergyman early in the 19th century. The needle-gun dates from 1827. The only important weapon not a firearm that has been invented since the introduction of gunpowder, is the bayonet, which is believed to have been invented about 1650. The principal weapons used in modern warfare will be found under their respective names. ARMS, COAT OF, or ARMORIAL BEARINGS, a collective name for the de- vices borne on shields, banners, etc., as marks the dignity and distinction, and, in the case of family and feudal arms, descending from father to son. They were first employed by the crusaders, and became hereditary in families at the close of the 12th century. They took their rise from the knights painting their banners or shields each with a figure or figures proper to himself, to enable him to be distinguished in battle when clad in armor. ARMSTRONG, JOHN, an American author and soldier, born at Carlisle, Pa., Nov. 25, 1758; served in the War of the Revolution on the staff of General Gates; was United States Minister to France, 1804-1810, afterward to Spain; and Sec- retary of War, 1813-1814. Author of "Newburg Letters," begun in camp, 1783, anonymously, and intended to arouse Congress to redress army griev- ances. He also wrote "Notices of the War of 1812" (1836). He died at Red Hook, N. Y., April 1, 1843. ARMSTRONG, SAMUEL CHAPMAN, an American educator, born in Hawaii in 1839, a son of Richard Armstrong, an American missionary to the Sandwich Islands. In 1860 he came to the United States; in 1862 was graduated at Wil- liams College; and in June of the same year he organized a company for the 125th Regiment of New York Infantry, and with it was assigned to the Army of the Potomac. At Harper's Ferry he was captured and held prisoner for three months. After the close of the war he was mustered out of the volunteer serv- ice with the rank of brigadier-general. During his service he volunteered for the command of a regiment of colored troops, with whom he served two years. In 1866 he took up the work of the F reed- man's Bureau and at first had the over- sight of the colored people in 10 coun- ties of Virginia. After two years in this work he founded a school which af<"erward became famous as the Hamp-
