was the scission between East and West. The fury of the West against the iconoclastic emperors was such that the whole of Italy clamoured for war. It is true that Pope Stephen II. applied in 753 to Constantine V., one of the worst destroyers of images, for aid against the Lombards, for the emperor of Byzantium was still regarded as the natural champion of the church. But Constantine refused aid, and the pope turned to the Frankish King Pippin. The die was cast. Henceforth Rome was linked with the Carolingian house in an alliance which culminated in the coronation of Charlemagne by the pope on the 25th of December 800.
In the crusading epoch the Cathars and Paulicians carried all over Europe the old iconoclastic spirit, and perhaps helped to transmit it to Wycliffe and Hus. Not the least racy clause in the document compiled about 1389 by the Wycliffites in defence of their defunct teacher is the following: “Hit semes that this offrynge ymages is a sotile cast of Antichriste and his clerkis for to drawe almes fro pore men . . . certis, these ymages of hemselfe may do nouther gode nor yvel to mennis soules, but thai myghtten warme a man’s body in colde, if thai were sette upon a fire.”
At the period of the Reformation it was unanimously felt by the reforming party that, with the invocation of saints and the practice of reverencing their relics, the adoration of images ought also to cease. The leaders of the movement were not, however, perfectly agreed on the question as to whether these might not in some circumstances be retained in churches. Luther had no sympathy with the iconoclastic outbreaks which then occurred; he classed images in themselves as among the “adiaphora,” and condemned only their cultus; so also the “Confessio Tetrapolitana” leaves Christians free to have them or not, if only due regard be had to what is expedient and edifying. The “Heidelberg Catechism,” however, emphatically declares that images are not to be tolerated at all in churches.
Sources.—“Acts of the Seventh Ecumenical Council held in Nicaea, 787,” in Mansi’s Concilia, vols. xii. and xiii.; “Acts of the Iconoclast Council of 815,” in a treatise of Nicephorus discovered by M. Serruys and printed in the Séances Acad. des Inscript. (May 1903); Theophanes, Chronographia, edit. de Boor (Leipzig, 1883–1885); and Patr. Gr. vol. 108. Also his “Continuators” in Patr. Gr. vol. 109; Nicephorus, Chronicon, edit. de Boor (Leipzig, 1880), and Patr. Gr. vol. 100; Georgius Monachus, Chronicon, edit. Muralt (Petersburg, 1859), and Patr. Gr. 110; anonymous “Life of Leo the Armenian” in Patr. Gr. 108; The Book of the Kings, by Joseph Genesios, Patr. Gr. 109; “Life of S. Stephanus, Junior,” Patr. Gr. 100; “St John of Damascus,” three “Sermones” against the iconoclasts, Patr. Gr. 95; Nicephorus Patriarch, “Antirrhetici,” Patr. Gr. 100; Theodore Studita, “Antirrhetici,” Patr. Gr. 99. For bibliography of contemporary hymns, letters, &c., bearing on the controversy see K. Krumbacher’s History of Byzantine Literature, 2nd ed. p. 674. Literature: Louis Brehier, La Querelle des images, and Les Origines du crucifix (Paris, 1904); Librairie Blond, in French, each volume 60 centimes (brief but admirable); Karl Schwartzlose, Der Bilderstreit (Gotha, 1890); Karl Schenk, “The Emperor Leo III.,” in Byzant. Zeitschrift (1896, German); Tel. Uspenskij, Skizzen zur Geschichte der byzantinischen Kultur (St Petersburg, 1892, Russian); Lombard, Études d’histoire byzantine; Constantine V.( Paris, 1902, Biblioth. de l’université de Paris, xvi.); A. Tougard, La Persécution iconoclaste (Paris, 1897); and Rev. des questions historiques (1891); Marin, Les Moines de Constantinople (Paris, 1897, bk. iv. Les Moines et les empereurs iconoclastes); Alice Gardner, Theodore of Studium (London, 1905); Louis Maimbourg, Histoire de l’hérésie des iconoclastes (Paris, 1679–1683); J. Daillé (Dallaeus), De imaginibus (Leiden, 1642, and in French, Geneva, 1641); Spanheim, Historia imaginum (Leiden, 1686). See also the account of this epoch in the Histories of Neander, Gibbon and Milman; Aug. Fr. Gfrörer, “Der Bildersturm” in Byzantinische Geschichte 2 (1873); C. J. von Hefele, Conciliengeschichte 3 (1877), 366 ff. (also in English translation; Karl Krumbacher. Byzant. Literaturgeschichte (2nd ed. p. 1090). (F. C. C.)
ICONOSTASIS, the screen in a Greek church which divides
the altar and sanctuary from the rest of the church. It is generally
attached to the first eastern pier or column and rises to the
level of the springing of the vault. The iconostasis or image-bearer
has generally three doors, one on each side of the central
door, beyond which is the principal altar. The screen is subdivided
into four or five tiers, each tier decorated with a series
of panels containing representations of the saints: of these
only the heads, hands and feet are painted, the bodies being
covered with embossed metal work, richly gilded. There is a
fine example in the Russo-Greek chapel, Welbeck Street, London,
which was rebuilt in 1864–1865.
ICOSAHEDRON (Gr. εἴκοσι, twenty, and ἕδρα, a face or base),
in geometry, a solid enclosed by twenty faces. The “regular
icosahedron” is one of the Platonic solids; the “great icosahedron”
is a Kepler-Poinsot solid; and the “truncated icosahedron”
is an Archimedean solid (see Polyhedron). In
crystallography the icosahedron is a possible form, but it has not
been observed; it is closely simulated by a combination of the
octahedron and pentagonal dodecahedron, which has twenty
triangular faces, but only eight are equilateral, the remaining
twelve being isosceles (see Crystallography).
ICTERUS, a bird so called by classical authors, and supposed
by Pliny to be the same as the Galgulus, which is generally
identified with the golden oriole (Oriolus galbula).[1] It signified
a bird in the plumage of which yellow or green predominated,
and hence Brisson did not take an unhappy liberty when he
applied it in a scientific sense to some birds of the New World
of which the same could be said. These are now held to constitute
a distinct family, Icteridae, intermediate it would seem
between the Buntings (q.v.) and Starlings (q.v.); and, while
many of them are called troopials (the English equivalent of
the French Troupiales, first used by Brisson), others are known
as the American Grackles (q.v.). The typical species of Icterus
is the Oriolus icterus of Linnaeus, the Icterus vulgaris of Daudin
and modern ornithologists, an inhabitant of northern Brazil,
Guiana, Venezuela, occasionally visiting some of the Antilles
and of the United States. Thirty-three species of the genus
Icterus alone, and more than seventy others belonging to upwards
of a score of genera, are recognized by Sclater and Salvin
(Nomenclator, pp. 35-39) as belonging to the Neotropical Region,
though a few of them emigrate to the northward in summer.
Cassicus and Ostinops may perhaps be named as the most remarkable.
They are nearly all gregarious birds, many of them with
loud and in most cases, where they have been observed, with
melodious notes, rendering them favourites in captivity, for
they readily learn to whistle simple tunes. Some have a plumage
wholly black, others are richly clad, as is the well-known Baltimore
oriole, golden robin or hangnest of the United States,
Icterus baltimore, whose brightly contrasted black and orange
have conferred upon it the name it most commonly bears in
North America, those colours being, says Catesby (Birds of
Carolina, i. 48), the tinctures of the armorial bearings of the
Calverts, Lords Baltimore, the original grantees of Maryland,
but probably more correctly those of their liveries. The most
divergent form of Icteridae seems to be that known in the United
States as the meadow-lark, Sturnella magna or S. ludoviciana,
a bird which in aspect and habits has considerable resemblance
to the larks of the Old World, Alaudidae, to which, however,
it has no near affinity, while Dolichonyx oryzivorus, the bobolink
or rice-bird, with its very bunting-like bill, is not much less
aberrant. (A. N.)
ICTINUS, the architect of the Parthenon at Athens, of the Hall of the Mysteries at Eleusis, and of the temple of Apollo at Bassae, near Phigalia. He was thus active about 450–430 B.C. We know little else about him; but the remains of his two great temples testify to his wonderful mastery of the principles of Greek architecture.
IDA (d. 559), king of Bernicia, became king in 547, soon after
the foundation of the kingdom of Bernicia by the Angles. He
built the fortress of Bebbanburh, the modern Bamborough, and
after his death his kingdom, which did not extend south of
the Tees, passed in turn to six of his sons. The surname of
- ↑ The number of names by which this species was known in ancient times—Chloris or Chlorion, Galbula (akin to Galgulus), Parra and Vireo—may be explained by its being a common and conspicuous bird, as well as one which varied in plumage according to age and sex (see Oriole). Owing to its general colour, Chloris was in time transferred to the Greenfinch (q.v.), while the names Galbula, Parra and Vireo have since been utilized by ornithologists (see Jacamar and Jacana).
