waves reflected from the earth's surface. Waves A and B bounce off the earth's surface like light off of a mirror. Notice that the positive and negative alternations of radio waves A and B are in phase before they strike the earth's surface. However, after reflection the radio waves are approximately 180 degrees out of phase. A phase shift has occurred.
The amount of phase shift that occurs is not constant. It varies, depending on the wave polarization and the angle at which the wave strikes the surface. Because reflection is not constant, fading occurs. Normally, radio waves reflected in phase produce stronger signals, while those reflected out of phase produce a weak or fading signal.
Ionospheric reflection occurs when certain radio waves strike a thin, highly ionized layer in the ionosphere. Although the radio waves are actually refracted, some may be bent back so rapidly that they appear to be reflected. For ionospheric reflection to occur, the highly ionized layer can be approximately no thicker than one wavelength of the wave. Since the ionized layers are often several miles thick, ionospheric reflection mostly occurs at long wavelengths (low frequencies).
DIFFRACTION
Diffraction is the ability of radio waves to turn sharp corners and bend around obstacles. Shown in figure 1-10, diffraction results in a change of direction of part of the radio-wave energy around the edges of an obstacle. Radio waves with long wavelengths compared to the diameter of an obstruction are easily propagated around the obstruction. However, as the wavelength decreases, the obstruction causes more and more attenuation, until at very-high frequencies a definite shadow zone develops. The shadow zone is basically a blank area on the opposite side of an obstruction in line-of-sight from the transmitter to the receiver.
Diffraction can extend the radio range beyond the horizon. By using high power and low-frequencies, radio waves can be made to encircle the earth by diffraction.
Figure 1-10.—Diffraction around an object.
ATMOSPHERIC EFFECTS ON PROPAGATION
As we stated earlier, changes in the ionosphere can produce dramatic changes in the ability to communicate. In some cases, communications distances are greatly extended. In other cases, communications distances are greatly reduced or eliminated. The paragraphs below explain the major problem of reduced communications because of the phenomena of fading and selective fading.
Fading
The most troublesome and frustrating problem in receiving radio signals is variations in signal strength, most commonly known as FADING. Several conditions can produce fading. When a radio wave is refracted by the ionosphere or reflected from the earth's surface, random changes in the polarization of the wave may occur. Vertically and horizontally mounted receiving antennas are designed to receive vertically and horizontally polarized waves, respectively. Therefore, changes in polarization cause changes in the received signal level because of the inability of the antenna to receive polarization changes.
Fading also results from absorption of the rf energy in the ionosphere. Most ionospheric absorption occurs in the lower regions of the ionosphere where ionization
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