ROMAN.] INSCRIPTIONS 127 III. 1. Among the inscriptions in the stricter sense (the tituli), perhaps the oldest, and certainly the most frequent, are the sepul- chral inscriptions (tituli scpulcralcs). Of the different forms of llomau tombs, partly depending upon the difference between burial and cremation, which were in use side by side, the latest and a very complete account is given in Marqnardt s Jfandbuch der romischen Alterthilmer (vol. vii. parti., Leipsic, 1879, p. 330 sq.). The most ancient examples are those of a sepulcretum at Prameste (G. I. L., i. 74, 165, 1501 a-d; Epliem. epigr., i. 25-131, Wil.153); the oldest of these contain nothing but the name of the deceased in the nominative ; those of more recent date give it in the genitive. The oldest and simplest form remained always in use down to Christian times ; it is that used on the large tectonic monuments of the Augustan age (e.g., that of Ciecilia Metella, C. L L., vi.1274) and in the mausolea of most of the emperors, and is still frequent in the tituli of the large columbaria, of the same age (C. I. L., vi. , part ii.). It was early succeeded by the lists of names, given also in the nominative, when more than one individual, either dead or alive, were to be indicated as sharers of a tomb. To distinguish the members still alive, a v (vivit, vivos, vivi) was prefixed to their names (e.g., 0. I. L., i. 1020, 1195, 1271); the deceased were sometimes marked by the &TJTO. nigrum (G. I. L., i. 1032; Wil. 158; see also C. I. L., vi. 10251 sq.). Only the names in the nominative are shown, too, on the sarcophagi of the Turpleii and Fourii at Tusculum (G. I. L., i. 65-72 ; Wil. 152), and in the oldest inscriptions on those of the Scipion-es, painted with minium (G.I. L., i. 29; Wil. 537), to which were added afterwards the insignia of the mayistratus curulcs (G. I. L., i. 31; Wil., 538) and the poetical eloyia. Of a somewhat different! kind are the inscriptions scratched without much care on very simple earthen vessels which belonged to a sepulcretum of the lower class, situated outside the porta Gapena at Rome, on the Appian road, near the old church of San Cesario (C. I. L., i. 882-1005, 1539, 1539a-d=C. I. L., vi. 8211-8397; Wil. 176); they can be ascribed to the period of the Gracchi. On these ollaj, besides the name of the deceased, also for the most part in the nominative, but on the more recent in the genitive, the date of a day, probably that of the death, is noted ; here and there obit (or o. ) is added. About the same epoch, at the beginning of the 6th century, along with the growing taste for tectonic ornamen tation of the tombs in the Greek style, poetical epigrams were added to the simple sepulchral titulus, especially amongst the half-Greek middle class rapidly increasing in Rome and Italy ; Saturnian (C. I. L., i. 1006), iambic (1007-1010), and dactylic (1011, compare Annali dell Institute Archeologico, vol. xxxvii. , p. 308) verses become more and more frequent in epitaphs (see Wil. 548 sq.). In prose also short designations of the mental qualities of the deceased (homo bonus, miscricors, amans paupcrum, or uxorfrugi lona pudica, and the like), short dialogues with the passer-by (originally borrowed from Greek poetry), as vale-salve, salvus ire, vale et tu, &c. (Wil. 180), then indications of his con dition in his lifetime, chiefly among the Greek tradesmen and workmen, e.g., lanius de colle Viminale (C. L L., i. 1011), mar- garitarius de sacra via, 1027, and the like), and some formulae, such as ossa hie sita sunt, heic cubat, heic situs est (in republican times mostly written in full, not abridged) were added. The habit of recording the measurement of the sepulchre, on the sepulchral cippus, by such formulae as locus patet in frontc pcdes tot, in agro (or in via, or retro) pedcs tot, seems not to be older than the Augustan age (C. L L., i. 1021, with Mommsen s note; Wil. 188). About the same time also the epitaphs more frequently state how long the deceased lived, which was formerly added only on certain occasions (e.g., in the case of a premature death), and mostly in poetical form. The worship of the dei Manes, though undoubtedly very ancient, is not alluded to in the sepulchral inscriptions themselves until the close of the republic. Here and there, in this period, the tomb is designated as a (locus) dcum Maanium (e.g., at Hispellum, C.I. L., i. 1410); or it is said, as on a ci2)pus from Corduba in Spain (C. I. L., ii. 2255; Wil. 218), C. Scntio Sat(urnino) co(n)s(ulc)iha.t is, in the year 19 B.C. dei Manes receperunt Abulliam N(umcrii) l(ibertam) Nigcllam. In the Augustan age the titulus sepulcralis begins to be confounded with the titulus sneer ; it adopts the form of a dedication dcis Manibus, offered to the dei Manes (or dei inferi Manes, the dei parcntum being the Manes of the parents) of the deceased (see Orel. 4351 ; Wil. 217-228). This formula, afterwards so common, is still very rare at the end of the republic, and is usually written in full, while in later times it is employed, both simply and in many varied forms (as dis manibus sacrum, or d. m. et memoriae, d. m. ct gcnio, or memoriae xternas, pad et quieti, quicti fetcrnze, somno asternal i, and so on ; Wil. 246), in thousands of monuments. By similar degrees the titulus sepulcralis adopts many of the elements of the titulus limwrarius (the indication of the cursus honorum, of the military charges, &c. , as, e.g. , in the inscription of On. Calpurnius Piso, C. I. L., i. 598 = vi. 1276, Wil. 1105, on the pyramid of Oestrus, C. L L., vi. 1374, and on the monument at Poiite Lucano of Ti. Plautius Silvanus ^Elianus. consul 74 A.D. , Orel. 750, Wil. 1145, and many others), of the tikili operum publi- corum (e.g., monumcntum fecit, sibi et suis, &c.), and of the instru- nienta. Testaments (like those of Dasumins of the year 109 A.D. C. I. L., vi. 10229, Wil. 314, and T. Flavins Syntroplms G. I. L., vi. 10239, Henz. 7321, Wil. 313), or parts of them (like that on the tomb of a Gaul of the tribe of the Lingeries, belonging to Ves pasian s time, Wil. 315), funeral orations (as those on Turia, the wife of Q. Lucretius Vespillo, consul 19 TA.c.G.I.L., vi. 1527, in Orel. 4859 incomplete; on Murdia C. I. L., vi. 10230, Orel. 4860, RudorlF, AbJiandlungcn der Kdnigl. Akadcmie der Wisscnschaftcn zu Berlin, 1868, p. 217 sq. ; and that of Hadrian on the elder Matidia, found at Tivoli Mommsen in the same -Abhandhmgcn, 1863, p. 483 sq.), numerous statements relating to the conservation and the employment of the monuments (C. I. L., vi. 10249; Wil. 287-290), to their remaining within the family of the deceased, from which came the frequent formula " h(oc) m(onumentum) h(eredem) n(on) s(cquctur)" and the like (Wil. 280), and relating to the annual celebration of parentalia (Wil. 305 sq.), down to the not un common prohibition of violation or profanation of the monument (compare, for instance, C. I. L., L 1241, Wil. 267, from Naples, " deis inferum parcntum sacrum, ni violate ;" C. L L., iii. 3955, from Siscia, "nc quis in hac ar[e]a porcos agi faccre velit;" G.I.L., ii. 2703, from Portugal, in a distich, "quisquis honorcni agitas, ita te tua gloria servet, prascipias puero nc linat hunc lapidem;" C. I.L., vi. 2357, "hospes ad hunc tumuhim ne mcias ossa precant-ur," &c. ; and Wil. 271-273), and the addition of the name of the stone-cutter (C. I. L., v. 7670; Wil. 2490; Orel. -Henz. 6344) and of the writer of the titulus (De Rossi, Inscr. Christ., i. p. 9, 5; Wil. 1285, 2490), with many other particulars (on which the index of Wil. p. 678 sq., may be consulted), form the text of the sepulchral inscriptions of the later epoch from Augustus down wards. To these are to be added many local peculiarities of provinces (as Spain and Africa), districts (as the much-disputed sub ascia dcdicare of the stones of Lyons and other parts of Gaul), and towns, of which a full account cannot be given here. 2. Of the dedicatory inscriptions (or tituli sacri), the oldest known are the short indications painted (along with representations of winged genii, in the latest style of Griuco-Italian vase painting), with white colour on black earthen vessels, by which those vessels (pocula) are declared to be destined for the worship, public or private, of a certain divinity (C. I. L., i. 43-50 ; Ephem. epigr. i. 5-6 ; Wil. 2827 a-i) ; they give the name of the god, as that of the possessor, in the genitive (e.g. , Saeturni pomlom, Lavernai })ocolom). The proper form of the dedication, the simple dative of the name of a divinity and often nothing else (as Apolcnei, Fide, Junone, &c. , which are all datives), is shown on the very primitive altars found in a sacred wood near Pisaurum (C. I. L., i. 167-180 ; Wil. 1-14) ; but also the name of the dedicants (matrona, matrona Pisaurcsc, which are nomin. plnr. ) and the formula} of the offering (dono dedrot or dedro, donu dat, where dono and donu are accus. ) are already added to them. This most simple form (the verb in the perfect or in the present) never disappeared entirely ; it occurs not infrequently also in the later periods. Nor did the dative alone, without any verb or formula, go entirely out of use (see C. I. L., i. 630; Wil. 36; C. I. L.,l 814 = vi. 96; Orel. 1850; Wil. 32 ; C. I. L., . 1153 ; Henz. 5789 ; Wil. 1775). But at an early date the verb donum dare and some synonyms (like donum portarc, fcrre, mancupio dare, pararc) were felt to be insufficient to express the dedicator s good will and his sense of the justice of the dedication, which accordingly were indicated in the expanded formula dono dcdct lub(e)s mcrcto (C. I. L., i. 183, cf. p. 555; Y T i!. 21 ; O. I. L., i. 190 ; Wil. 22), or, with omission of the verb, dmio mcrc(to) lib(e)s (C. I. L., i. 182). The dative case and this formula, completely or partially employed (for mcrito alone is also used, as C. I. L., i. 562, cf. Ephem. epigr., ii. 353, Wil. 29), remained in solemn use. To lubcns (or libcns) was added laetus (so in Catullus, 31, 4), and, if a vow preceded the dedication, votitm solvit (or voto condemnatus dcdif, ; see C. I. L., i. 1175 ; Henz. 5733 : Wil. 142 ; and C. I. L., ii. 1044) ; so, but not before the time of Augustus (see C. L L., i. 1462 = iii. 1772), the solemn formula of the dedica tory inscriptions of the later period, v. s. I. m. or v. s. I. I. m., arose. To the same effect, and of equally ancient origin with the solemn words dare and donum dare, the word sacrum (or other forms of it, as sacra[ara]), conjoined with the name of a divinity in the dative, indicates a gift to it (e.g., C. I. L., i. 814; Wil. 32; C. L L., i. 1200-1201; Wil. 33 a b) ; the same form is to be found also in the later period (e.g., C. I. L., i. 1124 ; Henz. 5624-5637), and gave the model for the numerous sepulchral inscriptions with dis Manibus sacrum mentioned before. Sacrum combined with a genitive very seldom occurs (Orel. 1824 ; Wil. 34) ; ara is found more frequently (as ara Ncptuni and ara Ventorum, Orel. 1340). Dedications were frequently the results of vows ; so victorious soldiers (such as L. Mummius, the conqueror of Corinth C. I. L., i. 541 sq. ; Orel. 563 ; Wil. 27), and prosperous merchants (e.g., the brothers Vertuleii C. I. L., i. 1175 ; Henz. 5733 ; Wil. 142) vow a tenth part of their booty (dcpracdad, as is said on the basis erected by one of the Fourii of Tusculum C. I. L.,. 63, 64 ;
