translations of Philo-Judæus and of the ecclesiastical histories of Eusebius, Socrates, Sozomen, Evagrius, and Theodoret are inelegant and not unfrequently inaccurate.—J. S., G.
CHRISTOPHERSON, Michel, an English Roman catholic theologian, who lived in the seventeenth century, and is chiefly known by his "Treatise of Antichrist, in three parts," in defence of Bellarmine against Dr. Downham.
CHRISTOPHORUS, Angelus, the author of a work published in 1619 in Greek, with a Latin translation, on the present state of the Greek church, containing many curious details respecting its discipline and ceremonies. A new translation of this work, with notes, was published at Frankfort in 1653 by George Phelavius.—J. T.
CHRISTOPOULOS, Athanasias, born at Castoria in Macedonia in 1772; died in 1847. He was the son of a Greek priest, who was settled at Bucharest in Wallachia. Athanasias was sent to Italy for his education, and at Padua studied law and jurisprudence. His attention, however, was chiefly given to classical learning. On his return to Bucharest he was employed as tutor to the children of the prince of Wallachia. He published in 1805 a drama which was acted with some success at Bucharest. About the same time he printed a Romaic grammar, in which he endeavoured to show that the modern language is composed exclusively of the Doric and Oolic dialects. He soon after went to reside in Constantinople, where he published some poems, chiefly bacchanalian and amatory, in modern Greek. The changes of government materially affected Athanasias. During the power of the Prince Mourousi and that of Caradja, Athanasias was employed in several departments of the state. When they had successively passed away, he occupied himself in a work which he called "Parallela," being a comparison of the advantages and disadvantages of different forms of government. He published, together with his collected poems, an essay on the sceptical philosophy of the ancients. Of this there are two editions, one in 1833, the other in 1841, the last of which differs considerably from the former. He translated the first book of the Iliad, and the first two books of Herodotus. He also published a tract, in which he maintained that the pronunciation of the modern Greeks was the true one, and identical with that of the ancient Greeks. His works have been collected, and published at Athens in 1853, under the title "Ἑλληνικὰ ἀρχαιωλωγήματα " They are in many points of view of considerable interest.—J. A., D.
CHRISTY, William, an enthusiastic English botanist and entomologist, died about the year 1840, at an early age. His zeal and success in the pursuit of science were only equalled by his readiness to impart to others a portion of the stores which he had collected. He formed a large herbarium of British and foreign plants, which he gave to the Botanical Society of Edinburgh. He made extensive tours in Britain, and visited Norway and Madeira.—J. H. B.
CHRISTYN, Jean Baptiste, a writer on antiquities and jurisprudence, was born at Brussels in 1622. After passing through various subordinate offices, he was sent by the king of Spain as ambassador to the congress of Nimeguen in 1678, and in 1681 as first commissioner to the conferences held at Courtray. He was rewarded for his services by being created a baron, and appointed chancellor of Brabant. He died in 1690, leaving a large number of works on jurisprudence and Belgian antiquities. His brother, Libert François—born in 1639; died in 1717—edited two works, entitled "De Legibus abrogatis et inusitatis in regno Franciæ," par P. Bugnyon, and "Opera Omnia Juridica" of John and Frederick Van der Sande. His nephew, Jean Baptiste, who was born in 1635, and died in 1707, was the author of a great number of treatises on legal subjects.—J. T.
CHRYSIPPUS, a famous Stoic philosopher, was the son of Apollonius of Tarsus, and was born at Soli, a town of Cilicia, about b.c. 280. Having spent his patrimony, some say in the public service, he devoted himself to the study of philosophy, and, taking up his residence at Athens, became a disciple of the celebrated Cleanthes, successor of Zeno. He soon became one of the foremost defenders of the philosophy of the Porch, and his disquisitions on the tenets of the Stoics acquired such celebrity as to give rise to the proverbial remark that, "if Chrysippus had not existed, the Porch could not have been." Cicero terms him the main pillar of the Porch, and speaks of his extraordinary acuteness and subtilty, though he admits that he was jejune in his writings; and Diogenes Laertius affirmed that, if the gods themselves were to hold disputations, they would adopt the manner of Chrysippus. The satirist Persius notices his skill in the arts of sophistry, and his frequent use of the figure sorites, which on this account he calls the "heap of Chrysippus." All agree that Chrysippus exhibited great readiness and courage in disputation, combined with equal arrogance and self-confidence. "Give me doctrines," he was in the habit of saying to his preceptor, "and I will find arguments to support them." When a certain person asked him what instructor he would recommend him to choose for his son, he replied, "Me; for if I thought any philosopher excelled me, I would myself become his pupil." On the other hand it is related that, when he was told that some person spoke ill of him, he said, "It is no matter; I will live so that he shall not be credited." Not contented with defending the tenets of his own school, he attacked those of the Academic and Epicurean sects with a vehemence which created him many enemies. Plutarch charges him with numerous inconsistencies and contradictions, as well as with obscurity and excessive subtilty. It is undeniable that his disquisitions abounded more in nice distinctions and curious subtleties than in solid arguments; and his friends of the Stoic school complained that he frequently adopted unusual and illogical modes of reasoning, and that he had collected many arguments in favour of the sceptical hypothesis which he could not answer himself, and had thus furnished his chief antagonist, Carneades, with weapons which he wielded with great effect against himself. Chrysippus has also been accused of impiety and of teaching doctrines subversive of religion, but his tenets do not seem to be fairly open to any other charge on this head than those which may be brought against the Stoical system itself. Chrysippus was indefatigably industrious, and he is said to have seldom written less than five hundred lines a day, and to have left behind him about seven hundred treatises; but of these nothing remain except a few extracts, which are preserved in the writings of Cicero, Plutarch, Seneca, and Aulus Gellius. He died b.c. 207.—J. T.
CHRYSIPPUS, of Cnidos, a Greek physician, sometimes confounded with the preceding, lived in the fourth century b.c. His works, which are not now extant, are quoted by Galen. He was son of Erineus, and pupil of Eudoxus of Cnidos.
CHRYSOCOCCES, Georgius, a Greek physician of the fourteenth century, author of various works on astronomy, which still remain in MS., appears to be the same person who was associated with Gaza in his labours in the Vatican library.
CHRYSOLORAS, Manuel, a learned Byzantine, famous as one of the restorers of classical learning in Italy, was born at Constantinople about the year 1355. He was sent to Italy in 1387 by the Emperor Manuel Palæologus to solicit the assistance of the Venetians and the pope against the Turks. About the year 1396 he settled in Italy as a teacher of Greek, and had for a pupil the famous Leonardo Bruni. He afterwards taught the same language at Florence, Milan, Pavia, and Rome, where he gained such favour at the papal court as to be sent as nuncio to the Emperor Sigismund. He was one of the representatives of the Greek church at the council of Constance, but died shortly after its convocation, April, 1415. Poggio Bracciolini, and Filelfo were also pupils of Chrysoloras. He wrote a Greek grammar entitled "Erotemata," which was one of the first published in Italy. Of this work there were numerous editions between the years 1480 and 1550, 4to and 8vo. Several of his Latin epistles are still extant.
CHRYSOSTOM, John, was born at Antioch, of a noble family, in the year 347. His father Secundus dying when he was young, his education devolved on his mother Arethusa, who sowed the seeds of faith in his young mind with pious care, and had the happiness of witnessing their silent growth, amid favourable influences, in the soil of a susceptible heart. Having been designed for the bar, he was sent to learn rhetoric under Libanius, who soon conceived a very high opinion of his eloquence and abilities. But after having commenced a successful practice, he abandoned the forensic profession, in consequence of the influence exerted upon him by the aged bishop Meletius, by whom, after three years' instruction, he was subsequently baptized and ordained teacher. After his mother's death he spent six years in monastic seclusion among the mountains, under the abbot Diodorus, afterwards bishop of Tarsus. Several other young men, whose inclinations led them to the same kind of life, were his companions in such seclusion; one of whom was Theodore,
