to read and write. He subsequently extended his scheme to the prisons of France, in which he was aided by the Duc d'Angouleme. In 1846 he visited the various hospitals and prisons in Belgium, Prussia, Germany, and Austria, and afterwards published the results of his observations.—F.
APPERT, François, brother of the preceding, discovered a mode of preserving animal and vegetable substances for human food, which he describes in his treatise, "L'art de conserver toutes les substances animales et végétales," Paris, 1831.
APPIANI, Andrea, the greatest Italian painter of modern times, was born at Monza, near Milan, in 1754. Already, at an early age, he distinguished himself as a designer of incomparable grace, and was soon called fully to display his talents in some frescos intrusted to him. The success of his first productions having been immense, he was directly afterwards called upon to paint the cupola of Santa Maria di San Celso at Milan. He carried out this work in a manner little dreamt of since the splendid era of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. He was unanimously styled the Modern Raphael, and was beset, from every quarter, with requests to execute works. However, with the exception of an excursion to Rome, he preferred remaining at Milan, where he executed a great number of works for churches, for private and public palaces, and especially for those of the court. On the occasion of a Napoleonic fête, he was called upon to decorate a triumphal arch, which he did in the most astonishingly short time, and with a skill almost without parallel, by a series of battles painted in distemper, in the chiaro-scuro style. The fête finished, the temporary structure of the arch was removed, and the twenty-four subjects painted for it by Appiani were taken care of by the Academy, and eventually published in prints executed by the first engravers of Italy, who vied also for the honour of illustrating his more important productions. Beloved by his fellow-citizens, he was not overlooked by the governative powers. Napoleon appointed him his painter, and conferred on him the cross of the Legion of Honour, and that of the Iron Crown, besides granting him an annual pension. He was made member of the Institute, and almost all the important academies of Italy and France. He died in 1818.—R. M.
* APPIANI, Andrea, of Milan, grandson of the preceding, a living artist of great merit. He studied under the celebrated Hayez, and distinguished himself in several of the exhibitions both in his native country and abroad.
APPIANI, Francesco, a painter of Ancona, born in 1702, one of whose finest pictures, representing the death of St. Dominic, was executed for Pope Benedict XIII. He continued to paint at the advanced age of ninety, and died in 1792.
APPIANO, the name of a family, the members of which possessed sovereign authority in Pisa and in the island of Elba, from the fourteenth to the seventeenth century. The founder of the dynasty was Vanni d'Appiano, a man of humble birth, and a native of the village of Appiano, who, having established himself in Pisa, became a member of the Guelph faction, known as the Bergolini, and opposed to the Guibelines faction of the Raspanti. When Charles IV. of Germany returned to Pisa from Rome in 1355, a fire which took place in the palace was represented as the work of Vanni and his party, and the charge being believed by the emperor, Vanni suffered death. Jacopo d'Appiano, on the death of his father Vanni, succeeded to his authority with the party he had supported, became secretary to Pietro Gambacorti, who in 1369 was proclaimed captain-general of the community of Pisa, and whom in 1392 he contrived to supplant and put to death. Jacopo himself died in 1398, at an advanced age, and was succeeded in the sovereignty of Pisa by his son, Gherardo d'Appiano, who sold Pisa to the duke of Milan for 200,000 gold florins, and the sovereignty of the town and district of Piombino, and of the islands of Elba, Pianosa, and Montechristo, and who took possession of his new principality in 1399. Gherardo, the first sovereign of Piombino, died in 1405, and was succeeded by his son Jacopo II., d'Appiano, who having died in 1440, without issue, was succeeded by Count Rinaldo Orsino, the husband of Jacopo's sister, and who died of the plague in 1450. His successor, Emmanuello d'Appiano, being strongly supported, obtained possession of Piombino and its dependencies from the relatives of Orsino, and dying in 1457, left his territories to Jacopo III., d'Appiano. This prince, by his arbitrary proceedings, gave great offence to his people. A conspiracy was formed against him, which, however, failed; but was followed by an attack from the troops of the duke of Milan, although with no better success. In 1465 he made an arrangement with Ferdinand, king of Naples, and became entitled to assume the royal coat-of-arms of Naples, and to add the name of Arragon to that of Appiano. He died in 1474, and was succeeded by his son, Jacopo IV., d'Appiano d'Arragona, who was a good prince, and restored to his people those privileges of which his father had deprived them. His reign, however, was much disturbed by disputes with the pope, and his territories were invaded by Cæsar Borgia, who placed a garrison in Piombino; but Jacopo, after an appeal to the Emperor Maximilian I., was reinstated in his dominions amid the rejoicings of his people in 1503. He died eight years afterwards, and was succeeded by his son, Jacopo V., d'Appiano d'Arragona, who, in 1520, obtained from the Emperor Charles V. a renewal of the investiture of his principality, and the addition of the imperial eagle in his armorial bearings. From 1539, for some years his territories were threatened by the celebrated Barbarossa, when it was necessary for the duke of Tuscany to aid Jacopo in protecting his state. Jacopo died in 1545, and was succeeded by his son, under the title of Jacopo VI., d'Appiano d'Arragona, who, during his minority, was under the guardianship of Charles V., and had nearly been deprived of his territories by Cosmo, duke of Tuscany, but took possession of his patrimony in 1559, much to the joy of the people, who were weary of foreign dominion. At his death in 1585, he left the sovereignty to his natural son, Alessandro d'Appiano, whose tyrannical conduct led to his assassination in 1589. He was succeeded by his son, Jacopo VII., d'Appiano, the last of the family who held the sovereignty, and who died in 1600, without issue.—F.
APPIANO, Nicola, an Italian painter of the fifteenth century, and one of the pupils of Lionardo da Vinci.
APPIANO, Paolo Antonio, an eloquent jesuit preacher, born at Ascoli in 1639, and author of a variety of historical works. He died at Rome in 1709.
APPIANUS, the author of a Roman history in Greek, was, as he himself tells us, an Alexandrian. He attained the highest position in his native place, and afterwards went to Rome, where he acted as an advocate in the courts of the emperors. Through the urgent solicitation of the orator Fronto, who was his close friend, Appian obtained the office of procurator from the Emperor Antoninus Pius. It is not known what province it was of which he was made procurator; but we gather from Fronto's letter of application, that Appian was considerably advanced in years when he got the appointment, and that he sought it not from motives of ambition or for the sake of money, but that he might spend his remaining years in dignity. The history of Appian was divided into twenty-four books, of which only eleven have come down to us, along with fragments of some of the others. Appian grouped his facts, not according to chronological order, but according as they referred to particular nations. Thus one book narrated the transactions of the Romans with the Gauls, another with the Spaniards, and another with the Sicilians, while a few books discuss particular wars; one, for instance, being devoted to the Mithridatic, and nine to the civil wars. Appian does not stand high as a historian. His work is a mere compilation, not always very carefully executed; but it has become valuable on account of the loss of some of those books from which he has drawn his materials.—J. D.
APPIUS CLAUDIUS, the name of a patrician family of great celebrity in the annals of ancient Rome, the founder of which was Appius Claudius Sabinus Regillensis, who was by birth a Sabine, and came to Rome a.u.c. 250, with a great number of adherents under his command, by whom new territories were acquired on the Anio, and a new tribe formed, to which the title of Claudia Gens was given, after the name of its originator. Appius Claudius became consul a.u.c. 259 (482 b.c.), and distinguished himself by his zealous support of the patrician order against the plebeians. His son of the same name lived in the second half of the fifth century b.c., and became consul in 471. He inherited the prejudices of his father against the common people, and made himself so unpopular, that in the war he conducted against the Volsci, a.u.c. 283, the Roman army suffered themselves to be defeated, to show their dislike to their general. His brother, Caius Claudius Appius, was consul 460 b.c.; and although, like his family, he resisted the encroachments of the plebeians, he was nevertheless a man of great moderation. His colleague was the famous Cincinnatus.—Appius Claudius Crassinus, became consul 451 b.c., in
