time with the records of his country." Since his death the works of Mr. Calhoun have been published in six octavo volumes, the first being a posthumous publication of "A Disquisition upon Government," and "A Discourse on the Constitution and Government of the United States;" and the others being a r epublication of his speeches in congress, official reports, and other documents of which he was the author.—F. B.
CALIDASA, a celebrated Hindoo poet, who is supposed by some to have flourished about the middle of the century preceding the commencement of our era, by others about the close of the second century. He is the author of a great number of poems of unequal merit, but not a few of them are of a very high order. One of his dramas, entitled "Sacuntalâ, or the Fatal Ring," was translated by Sir William Jones (Calcutta, 1789, London, 1792), and was received with great admiration. It has since been repeatedly retranslated into French and German, and several attempts have been made on the continent to adapt it to the stage. A correct edition of the text of this celebrated drama, which had been greatly interpolated and corrupted, was published by Herman Brockhaus of Leipzig, and a free yet accurate English translation in prose and verse has since been published by Professor M. Williams. Câlidâsa is also the author of "Vicramôrvasî," a dramatic poem in five acts; of a comedy called "Agnimitra and Mâlavirca" the "Mêgha Dûta, or Cloud Messenger," a lyrical poem of one hundred and sixteen stanzas; an unfinished epic poem called "Cumâra Sambhava" a narrative poem entitled "Raghu Vansa," &c. A number of these pieces have been translated by H. H. Wilson in his Hindoo Theatre.—J. T.
CALIGNON, Soffrey de, a French poet, born in 1550; died at Paris in 1606. He was chancellor of Navarre under Henry IV., and was engaged, along with de Thou, in framing the edict of Nantes. He wrote a poetical satire—"Le Mepris des Dames."
CALIGNY, Jean-Antenor Hue de, an eminent French engineer, one of four brothers to whom was intrusted the direction of a great number of the most important military works in France and the Low Countries: born in 1657; died in 1731.
CALIGULA, Caius Cæsar, emperor of Rome from 37 to 41. He was the son of Germanicus, and obtained the surname of Caligula from his habit of wearing the caliga or military shoe. He succeeded his grandfather, Tiberius, under the most favourable circumstances for attaining popularity. The earlier measures of Caligula seem to have justified the expectations formed of him by the populace. He dismissed from the court the profligate favourites of Tiberius, remitted many of the taxes imposed in the previous reign, and set at liberty many prisoners. For the first eight months of his reign he continued, by measures such as these, to retain the affections of his subjects, who manifested in every possible way their satisfaction with his rule; but about that time he was seized with a severe and dangerous illness, which is supposed by many to have deranged his mental faculties. His character underwent a sudden and total change. He became cruel and tyrannical, and gave himself up to every species of debauchery and extravagance. He assumed divine honours, erected a temple for his own worship, and caused sacrifices to be offered to himself every day. His impiety was fully equalled by his prodigality. Even the immense taxes imposed upon the provinces proved inadequate to satisfy the demands of his lavish expenditure, and the wealthier class of citizens then became the victims of his rapacity. His favourite horse was kept in a stable of marble, and treated with every mark of respect; and it is said that death alone prevented the infatuated emperor from conferring the consulship upon it. The extravagance and profusion of his domestic arrangements have scarcely a parallel in history. His cruelties were so great as almost to transcend belief. To torture, and even to put to death innocent people, was with him a favourite amusement; and he is said to have maintained a large number of wild beasts, which were daily fed with human victims. In a moment of irritation he once expressed a wish that the Roman people had but one head, that he might strike it off at a blow. The slightest suspicion against any one he converted arbitrarily into a capital charge. The old and infirm were frequently destroyed by his orders, for no other reason than that they were useless to the state. In this way he continued to give himself up to the practice of every species of oppression and brutality, till, in the third year of his reign, he was seized with an ungovernable desire for military glory. Levies were made throughout the empire, and an expedition was fitted out which he commanded in person, and with which he proposed to reduce to subjection all Germany and Britain. He contented himself, however, with marching his troops into France, on the coast of which he drew up the army in order of battle, and ordered each soldier to fill his helmet with sea-shells, which were carried to Rome, and paraded with much solemnity as the spoils of the ocean. A successful conspiracy at length put an end to the tyranny of Caligula. After a reign of about four years, he was assassinated during the celebration of the Palatine games by a band of conspirators, headed by Cassius Chærea, a tribune of the prætorian guards.—W. M.
CALIMANI, Simeone, rabbi at Venice during a considerable portion of the eighteenth century. He has left a grammar of the Hebrew language, with a dissertation on Hebrew poetry. The Hebrew-Italian lexicon which he intended to publish, was not completed when he died.—T. T.
CALIXTUS. See Alexander III., Pope.
CALIXTUS I. (more properly CALLISTUS), a Roman by birth, succeeded Zephyrinus in the papacy, according to Fleury, in the year 217, and, after having sat five years, was put to death under Alexander Severus in 222. The chronology, however, is very uncertain. This pope is said by Platina to have instituted the fasts at the four seasons, called Quarter-tenses or Ember-days. Little authentic was known of him until the late discovery of one of the lost works of Hippolytus, bishop of Portus, in which statements are made respecting Callistus of the most unfavourable nature. A famous christian cemetery was named after him.—T. A.
CALIXTUS II. (Guido, archbishop of Vienne) was elected at Cluny in France in 1119, after the sudden death of Gelasius II.; but he would not assume the papal insignia until he had received tidings of the willing confirmation of his appointment by the rest of the cardinals at Rome. He was connected by birth with no less than three royal families. The struggle regarding the right of investiture, that is, the right of appointing to vacant sees and benefices, was now at its height. Paschal II. had in 1118 weakly conceded to the emperor, Henry V., the right of investiture "by ring and crosier," the well-known emblems of the spiritual jurisdiction of bishops. This concession was condemned by the nearly unanimous voice of the clergy all over Europe; and in a great council held at Rheims towards the close of 1119, in which the pope presided, Calixtus endeavoured to arrange the matter with the emperor. But the faithless conduct of Henry, who, while professing his willingness to abandon the right, was found to be manœuvring to get the pope into his hands, caused the negotiations to be broken off. After visiting Normandy, where he met the English king, Henry I., at Gisors, Calixtus proceeded to Italy. Soon after his arrival in Rome, the antipope, Burdinus, who had been set up by the emperor, was brought into the city a captive, and delivered up to him. Calixtus pardoned him, and confined him for the remainder of his life to the monastery of Cava. In 1122 the affair of investitures was arranged. The emperor concluded a concordat with the papal legates at Worms, by which he surrendered the right of investiture by ring and crosier, retaining only that of investing "by the sceptre," when he put bishops in possession of their temporalities. By the same treaty peace was established in Germany. The concordat was ratified by the great council of the Lateran (commonly called the ninth general council), convened by the pope at Rome in the following year. Calixtus died in 1124. Gibbon says of him, that "after giving peace to Europe, Calixtus II. alone had resolution and power to prohibit the use of private arms in the metropolis."—T. A.
CALIXTUS III. (Alphonsus Borgia, a Spaniard) succeeded Nicholas V. in 1455. He bent all his energies to the task of recovering Constantinople, if possible, from the hands of the Turks, and renewed the proclamation made in 1453 for a general crusade, sending his legates into every country of Europe to preach the holy war. For this purpose he alienated many valuable jewels, and even manors, belonging to the Roman church. His otherwise unblemished character was tarnished by the grossness of his nepotism. Calixtus died in 1458.—T. A.
CALIXTUS, George, one of the most learned, liberal, and enlightened of the German theologians of the seventeenth century, was born on the 14th December, 1586, in a village of Schleswig of the name of Medelbye. His father, who was pastor of the village, had been one of the pupils of Melancthon in his last years, and had imbibed his moderate and conciliatory
