wrote a pamphlet displaying all the strength of his sarcastic mind. He wrote also two plays—"I Lucidi," an imitation of Plautus' Menechones, and "La Trinuzia"—both in prose. His best work, however, is "L'Asino d'oro d'Apulejo," which has been translated into many languages. Firenzuola's writings are very immoral in their tone, but classical in point of language; and as regards style, ornate without prolixity, and singularly harmonious. Firenzuola died about the year 1545.—A. C. M.
FIRMIAN, Karl, Count von, an Austrian statesman, was born in 1716 of a noble Tyrolese family. His liberal education, improved by travel in France and Holland, fitted him to occupy the seat in the Aulic council at Vienna, to which Charles VI. called him; and on the death of that prince he spent some years in Rome, studying jurisprudence and gratifying his taste for the fine arts. After the accession of Francis I. he was appointed governor of Lombardy, and when the administration of that province passed into the hands of the archduke, he was invested with the high office of minister-plenipotentiary, and with the vice-governorship of Mantua, Sabionetta, and Bozzolo, being honoured also with the order of the golden fleece. He was a liberal patron of the fine arts and literature, formed a splendid collection of books and paintings, and exerted himself zealously to promote the prosperity of the province. His death occurred in 1782, and the catalogue of his library was afterwards published in a quarto volume entitled "Bibliotheca Firmiana."—W. B.
FIRMICUS MATERNUS, Julius, is the reputed author of two ancient works of a widely different character. One of these, a tract entitled "De Errore Profanarum Religionum," was first printed at Strasburg by Matthias Flaccius in 1562, from a manuscript which has been lost. It is addressed to Constantius and Constans, the sons of the Emperor Constantine the Great. From the fact that no mention is made of Constantine, the eldest son of the emperor, it has been supposed that the work was written after his death, which took place in 340, and before the death of Constans, who was slain in 350. The object of the tract is to show the falsehood of the pagan belief, and to trace the steps by which idolatrous notions have obtained currency and power. There is nothing in the book indicating the history or position of the writer, and it is remarkable that no ancient christian author makes mention either of it or of him. The other work which bears the name of Firmicus, is entitled "Matheseos Libri Octo," and was first printed at Venice in 1497. It is a defence and illustration of judicial astrology, containing the maxims of the science, and a statement of the influence of the various aspects and combinations of the heavenly bodies, according to the most approved horoscopes of antiquity. The various books of the treatise are formally dedicated to Manutius Lollianus, and in the dedication of the last four the title of proconsul is attached to his name—a fact which seems to prove that the work was not published at once, but that its parts were issued at successive periods. In the first book a solar eclipse, known to have taken place in 334, is spoken of as a recent event. From the circumstances which we have mentioned, both of the works bearing the name of Firmicus seem to have been written between 334 and 350. If they are the productions of the same person (and ecclesiastical historians are divided on this point, as there is no proof but the name), the author's conversion to Christianity must have taken place in the interval between the two dates indicated, as the tone of the astrological treatise is that of a person under the influence of heathen superstition. Indeed, the principal value of the work arises from the fact that it contains much curious information concerning the beliefs and the sacred rites of the ancient heathen.—J. B. J.
FIRMILIAN, Saint, Bishop of Cæsarea, the metropolis of Cappadocia, in the third century, was an intimate friend of the great Origen. In the persecution of Maximin, Origen is thought to have sought shelter with him, and both took refuge in the house of a rich and pious lady named Juliana. About the year 253, Firmilian took part in a council at Antioch, occasioned by the schism of Novatus. In the controversy on rebaptizing heretics, he sided with St. Cyprian against Pope Stephen, and wrote to the former a letter which is still extant. In 264 he presided at the first council held at Antioch to condemn the errors of Paul of Samosata. He deferred pronouncing judgment, hoping that Paul would make the necessary retractation. But the delinquent continuing obstinate, a second council was summoned to meet at Antioch, on his way to join which Firmilian died at Tarsus in the year 269.—(Eusebius.)—T. A.
FIRMIN, Thomas, an English merchant distinguished by his beneficence, was born at Ipswich in the beginning of the seventeenth century, and carried on business as a linen-draper in London. The misfortunes of Biddle, the Socinian minister, having attracted his notice and sympathy, he adopted the religious principles of that sect; but his disinterested and active philanthropy secured him a place in the esteem of Tillotson, Compton, and other prominent evangelical divines of the period. In 1676 he employed a considerable portion of the wealth which his industry had acquired, in establishing a linen factory for the purpose of giving work to the poor. An account of his system was afterwards published by him, under the title of "Proposals for the employing of the Poor, the Prevention of Beggary, &c., in a letter to a friend." He died in 1697, having been for twenty years governor of Christ's hospital, which owed much to his liberal support.—W. B.
FIRMONT, Edgeworth de. See Edgeworth.
FIROUZABADI See Alfirouzabadi.
FISCHART, Johann, an eminent German satirist, was born probably about 1545 at Mayence, whence he took the surname of Mentzer. His life is greatly involved in mystery. We only know that he studied law, visited England about 1570, and after his return, lived at Strasburg, where all his writings were published. In 1581 or 1582 he was an advocate at Speier, and some years later, as it appears, a bailiff at Forbach, where he died in 1589. In his satirical writings, the greatest part of which appeared under quaint fictitious names, he displays an unrivalled, though often coarse, wit and satire, and a singular mastery over the language. At the same time he wages a fierce war against the Roman catholic church in favour of the reformed doctrine. The subjects of his works are often taken from foreign sources, especially from Rabelais and Philip Marnix, but treated with such complete freedom and originality, that he may justly be styled the German Rabelais. We should, however, wrong him, if we were to overlook his serious poetry. His "Glückhafft Schiff" is one of the finest descriptive poems in the German language; and his sacred songs must be ranked with the best of his time.—K. E.
FISCHER, Christian August, a German miscellaneous writer, was born at Leipzig in 1771. After having visited the greater part of Europe as a commercial traveller, he settled at Dresden, became professor in the university of Würzburg, was dismissed, and retired to Frankfort-on-the-Maine and Mayence, where he died, on 14th April, 1829. His numerous travels, descriptions, and tales are all but forgotten.—K. E.
FISCHER, Ernst Gottfried, a celebrated physicist and mathematician, was born on the 17th July, 1754, at Hoheneiche, near Saalfeld, in Thüringia. He was educated in the school of his native town, and afterwards studied philosophy and philology at the university of Halle. He was invited to Berlin, where he became prorector, and afterwards, in 1787, professor of physics and mathematics at the united Berlin and Cologne gymnasium. He became doctor of philosophy in 1797, and was subsequently appointed professor of physics at the university of Berlin; a member of the committee of military education, and of the senate of the military school; of the Berlin Academy of Science; and of various other scientific bodies. He died January 27, 1831, at Berlin. Fischer especially devoted himself to the study of physics, chemistry, mathematics, and geometry. One of his earliest works, "Considerations on Comets," was published in 1789. He also wrote a "Theorie der Dimensionszeichen," and a paper on different ways of representing logarithms geometrically. A "Handbook of Mechanical Physics," and a treatise "On Elementary Mathematics," are among his most celebrated works. His numerous researches are scattered amongst the various scientific journals; of these the most important are—"A theory of the images reflected by plain glass mirrors;" on "The vibrations of chords;" on "Berthollett's new theory of affinity;" and various papers on astronomical subjects.—C. E. L.
FISCHER, Friedrich Ernst Ludwig von, was born on the 20th of February, 1782, at Halberstadt in the Hartz, and died at St. Petersburg on the 17th June, 1854, in the seventy-third year of his age. He prosecuted his studies at the university of Halle, and obtained the degree of doctor of medicine in 1804, his thesis being on the subject of the propagation of ferns. He soon afterwards became superintendent of the botanic garden of Count Razumoffsky, the minister of public instruction in Russia, situated at Gorenki in the neighbourhood df Moscow. He wrote
