colonel and the cross of the legion of honour in Corsica; later still he became brigadier, adjutant-general, and divisional inspector of infantry. Meanwhile he had been devoting himself to a careful study of the science of his profession, and his fame was acquired chiefly by his writings on military tactics. His first work, "Essai General de Tactique," appeared in 1770; the estimation in which it has been held, in spite of the severe criticism which it encountered, caused it to be republished in 1803, and there is a translation of it into the English language. His "Refutation du Systeme de M. de Mesnil-Durand" followed, and he subsequently undertook a more comprehensive work, entitled "Histoire de la Milice Française," which was interrupted by his labours at the hotel des invalides, of which his father had been appointed governor. Some later works were published under the name of Raynal; and after his death in 1790, his widow published his travels in Germany and Switzerland, with a memoir. His eloges of Catinat, De l'Hopital, and others, are well known; he wrote also a few tragedies.—W. B.
GUICCIARDINI, Francesco, was born at Florence on the 6th of March, 1482. His family was distinguished amongst the nobility, and held the highest dignities in the Florentine republic; his father, Pietro, was ambassador to Leo X., and the Emperor Maximilian I. In early youth he evinced an extraordinary aptitude for classical learning. At the age of twenty-one he had already completed his legal studies in the universities of Ferrara and Padua; and at twenty-three, at a time in which all the chairs of jurisprudence were filled by eminent professors, Guicciardini was appointed to the professorship of Roman law in his native city. A few years after, although his age might have been considered an obstacle, Guicciardini was sent as ambassador to Ferdinand of Spain, whose interest and friendship he secured in behalf of the Florentine republic. Having fully succeeded in the object of his embassy, Guicciardini returned to Italy, where Pope Leo X., at his entrance into Florence in 1515, recognizing in the youthful diplomatist eminent qualities and rare talents, loaded him with honours, and appointed him to the governorship of Modena and Reggio, with the most unlimited powers. Six years after, Guicciardini was invested also with the governorship of Parma; and Pope Adrian VI., the successor to Leo X., fully confirmed him in all his honours and dignities. Clement VII. on his accession, not only intrusted Guicciardini with the government of the Roman state, but employed him in the different negotiations set on foot by that ambitious pontiff for the purpose of establishing his family influence over the Tuscan provinces, then governed by republican institutions. Charles V. of Spain, having proved more than a match for the crafty pope, recourse to arms was considered necessary to forward the ambitious views of Rome; and in 1526 Guicciardini was appointed second in command of the papal army. In that capacity he displayed great military and political ability. He had to provide against the defection of the imperialists, who gladly saw the humiliation of the Roman court and the fall of the Medician influence in Italy; against the allied princes, who dreaded the Roman pontiff more than the duke of Bourbon; and even against the republican confederates led by Ferruccio, and already victorious in several encounters with the French invaders. To maintain intact the Roman territory, to check the intriguing policy of Charles V., to annul the victories obtained by the French leader, and, above all, to uphold the interest of the family to whose elevation he had nobly devoted himself, was not an easy task; and it required not only a skilful negotiator and a profound politician, but also an experienced administrator, to heal the deep wounds inflicted on the Roman and Tuscan provinces by the aggressive and ambitious policy both of Clement VII. and Charles V. of Spain. Many accuse Guicciardini of cruelty and immorality in carrying out his political plans; but the errors or crimes with which he is charged in this respect, must be attributed rather to the age in which he lived than to the bent of his disposition or the quality of his intellect. Nor can the ill success of the armed intervention of Clement VII. against the Florentine republic he attributed to Guicciardini, but to the duke of Urbino, who adroitly contrived to create a very strong feeling of hatred and discontent against the pope and his cause. The French troops headed by the duke of Bourbon having sacked the city of Rome, Guicciardini commanded the besieged garrison, and to that circumstance we owe that magnificent and graphic description known by the name of Guicciardini's "Sacco di Roma." whose authority is, however, suspected by Tiraboschi. In 1531 Clement VII. sent Guicciardini to Bologna as governor-general of that province, a post he filled until the death of that pontiff in 1534. The policy of Paid III. having displeased Guicciardini, he retired to Florence, where he eagerly embraced the cause of Alexander de Medici against the republican tendencies of that state. Accordingly, when a senate was created by Alexander for the sole purpose of opposing any popular outburst in favour of republicanism, Guicciardini was elected a senator; and from that time he powerfully assisted the Medicis in establishing an absolute tyranny in their dominions. On the death of Alexander de Medici, and the accession of Cosmo I., it was proposed to make some concessions to popular feeling; but Guicciardini overruled the proposal. Neglected, however, by the new ruler, Guicciardini did not much longer continue at court, but retreated to his far-famed villa at Arcetri, where his immense political experience during his public life so well qualified him to compose his history of Italy, a work that has placed his name in the first rank amongst Italian writers. Many critics consider his language too florid and bombastic; but the majority agree in acknowledging in the Italian historiographer the best writer of his age, and the truest expounder of the political events of his times, in which he took so important a part. It is, however, much to be regretted that the prolixity of his style and the immense length of his periods have justly brought on him the severe censure of Boccalini and Rossini, who, notwithstanding, concede to our author the first place amongst the historians of Italy. Guicciardini left also several magnificent orations, and a voluminous diplomatic correspondence, together with notes and corrections on his history, lately published by his descendants at Florence, and edited by F. Monnier. Guicciardini was reviewing his great historical work up to the time of his death, on the 27th of May, 1540.—A. C. M.
GUICCIARDINI, Luigi, born at Florence in June, 1523, succeeded his uncle, the great historian, in many important offices under Alexander and Cosmo de Medicis. His passion for travelling induced him to leave his native country, and whilst at Antwerp, he met with the duke of Alba, who granted him his powerful protection. The independent spirit of the Italian nobleman, however, could not bear for any length of time the intolerant disposition of the Spanish grandee, who, on a slight pretext, deprived Guicciardini of his liberty, which he recovered only through the intercession of the grand duke of Tuscany. Having returned to Italy, Guicciardini spent the rest of his life in writing his memoirs; a history of the Low Countries, which is considered of high value from the accuracy of its details; and some other minor works, recorded by Teissier and De Thou. Guicciardini died in 1589.—A. C. M.
GUIDI, Carlo Alessandro, born at Pavia in 1650. From an early age he displayed a great predilection for poetry and oratory; and he may be considered as one of the first reformers of the bad taste introduced in Italy by Marini and his school. His first lyric productions were dedicated to Ranuccio Farnese, the second duke of Parma, who encouraged the youthful poet, and ordered his compositions, both in prose and verse, to be recited by the alumni of the college of Nobles at Parma. The renown of this writer having reached the ears of Maria Christina of Sweden, she obtained from Duke Farnese permission for Guidi to go to Rome, where he was received by that princess with the greatest honours, and admitted at once amongst the members of her literary academy. Whilst at Rome, Guidi studied profoundly the works of Horace, Dante, Petrarch, and Chiabrera. On the death of his royal protectress he wrote some odes replete with Horatian beauties. At the instance of Crescimbeni Guidi undertook a version of the Psalms of David. He wrote also a pastoral called "Endimione," which he dedicated to Cardinal Albani. This prelate having ascended the pontifical throne under the name of Clement XI., Guidi undertook to turn into verse six of the pope's homilies, a task that unfortunately for Guidi proved a complete failure, and brought on him from all parts of Italy the severest censure. He also attempted the tragic style with but little success. Having published a costly edition of his homilies, which he intended to present to Clement XI. at his villa at Castel Gandolfo, Guidi was on his way thither with a copy of that work, when, discovering in it a gross typographical error, he fell into so violent a passion that apoplexy ensued, of which he died in a few hours, 12th June, 1712.—A. C. M.
GUIDI, Guido (in Latin, Vidus, Vidius), a celebrated physician, born in Florence of a noble family towards the end of the
