man, free in the expression of his opinions, and conceited. Though a pagan, he warmly advocated religious toleration. Basil and Chrysostom were among his pupils; and he always stood in friendly relations to them. Libanius' works are numerous, consisting of an autobiography, eulogies, declamations, and letters. They are not distinguished by profound thought or research, and the style is affected. The most complete edition is that of Reiske, four volumes, 1791-97, Leipsic.—S. D.
LIBAVIUS, Andreas, a celebrated German chemist, born at Halle in Saxony. He filled for some time the chair of history and poetry at Jena, and afterwards held the post of director of the gymnasium at Coburg. Died in 1616. By his writings Libavius rendered much service to chemistry; and it was he who first mentioned the practice of "transfusion of blood."—W. B—d.
LIBERATUS, deacon of the church of Carthage in the sixth century, sent to Rome by the Carthaginian council in 535, and employed on other important affairs. He compiled a history or "Breviarium de Causa Nestorii et Eutychetis," in twenty-four chapters, from the ordination of Nestorius in 428, to the fifth general council in 553—a work of some importance, and often printed. It is not known when Liberatus died.—B. H. C.
LIBERI, Pietro, Cavaliere, was born at Padua in 1605, and studied under his countryman Il Padovanino. He visited Venice, Parma, and Rome, and became one of the most accomplished painters of his age. He had, however, two methods of painting, some of his works being highly elaborated, and others being executed with great boldness; the latter he said was for the expert, the former for the ignorant, who could appreciate labour though unable to discover skill. Liberi painted many altarpieces, but he preferred gallery pictures, from ancient mythology to church legends; and he was very fond of painting naked Venuses after the manner of Titian, whence he got the surname of Il Libertino. He was the first president of the Academy of painting of Venice. Among his principal works are the "Battle of the Dardanelles." in the ducal palace; and the "Slaughter of the Innocents," in the church of Ogni Santi in Venice; "Noah leaving the Ark," in the cathedral at Vicenza; and the "Deluge," in Santa Maria Maggiore at Bergamo. He painted also much in Germany. He died October 18th, 1687, at Venice, where he had built himself a palace, Palazzo de' Lini, on the grand canal, and lived in great splendour. Zanetti gives him the title of Count.—(See Della Pittura Veneziana, 1771.)—R. N. W.
LIBERIUS, Bishop of Rome, was ordained on 22nd May, 352. It is doubtful whether at first he took part against Athanasius and excommunicated him from the Roman church. He was steadfast in his attachment to the catholic faith, although his legates to the council of Aries in 353 were gained over, and his representatives at Milan in 354 banished; almost all the western prelates having yielded. In 355, having been summoned to Milan before the Emperor Constantius, he withstood him; refusing to subscribe to the condemnation of Athanasius. Hence he was banished to Berœa, where after two years he made proposals of submission, and signed before the council of Sirmium an Arian creed and the decrees against Athanasius. He was accordingly permitted to return to Rome to share office with Felix, who had been appointed his successor. In consequence, however, of popular feeling and tumult the latter resigned, leaving Liberius in full possession. It is said that before his death in 366 he recanted all his errors, and became a catholic again. His correspondence comprehends twelve epistles, given by Constant, some of which are probably spurious. Three other pieces are ascribed to him, one of them being the dialogue with the emperor at Milan, which is preserved in Theodoret, H. E. ii.—(See Galland, Bibliotheca patrum, vol. v. p. 65.)—S. D.
LIBRI, Girolamo dai, a distinguished Italian miniature painter, was born at Verona in 1472, and was called Dai Libri (of the books), from the occupation of his father, Francesco, who was an illuminator. Girolamo was a distinguished painter, as well as an illuminator. The books he illuminated at Verona, which are praised by Vasari, are now lost or dispersed. His principal works of every kind were at Verona. In the church of San Giorgio Maggiore is still a picture by Girolamo, painted in 1526, which is signed "Hieronymus a Libris." He was most famous for his pictures of the Madonna and Child, sometimes enthroned and surrounded by saints. Verona still possesses several such, and there is a small Madonna and Child in the National gallery, London, attributed to him. Though Girolamo lived long in the sixteenth century, his paintings are all in the simple devout style of the fifteenth. He was the master of Giulio Clovio, the prince of illuminators; and his own son, Francesco dai Libri the Younger, was likewise a skilful illuminator. Girolamo died at Verona on the 2nd July, 1555.—(Vasari, Vite, &c.; Ed. Lemonnier, vol. ix.)—R. N. W.
* LIBRI-CARRUCCI Dalla Sommaja, Guglielmo Brutus Icilius Timoleon, Count, a distinguished Italian mathematician and man of letters, was born at Florence on the 2nd of January, 1803. He was for a time professor of mathematics at Pisa, but in 1830 became politically obnoxious to the Tuscan government, and fled to France, where he soon obtained various high scientific appointments, and amongst others those of member of the Academy of Sciences, inspector-general of the university, and inspector-general of the royal (now imperial) library. Being an indefatigable collector of books, he by degrees accumulated a private library of extraordinary extent and richness. This perhaps led to the false accusation of plundering the royal library, which was brought against him in 1848, and by which he was compelled to take refuge for some years in England. The groundlessness of that charge has since been clearly shown; it has been proved that the particular volumes which he was accused of abstracting, were never even missing from the library. He is the author of a long series of papers on the higher mathematics; of a celebrated work, "The History of Mathematical Science in Italy," published in the French language, from 1837 to 1841; and of Lives of Galileo and Fermat.—R.
LICETO, Fortunio, physician and philosopher, born at Rapallo in the state of Genoa, 3rd October, 1577; died in Padua, 17th May, 1657. A devoted disciple of Aristotle, he has left fifty-four works, medical, philosophical, moral, antiquarian, and historic. He tilled successive professorships in Pisa, Padua, Bologna, and for the second and last time in Padua; and the Venetian states honoured his memory by continuing his salary to his children for six months.—C. G. R.
LICHTENAU, Wilhelmine Enke, Countess of, was born at Potsdam in 1754, the youngest daughter of a musician of the chapel royal, named Enke. Her eldest sister was the mistress of the crown prince, Frederick-William, nephew of Frederick the Great. One day the eldest sister gave a blow to the younger in presence of the royal lover, who indignantly remonstrated; and, moved by pity, took Wilhelmine under his protection, had her educated, and finally placed her in the position of the discarded sister. Separated for a time in obedience to the orders of the economical king, they were reunited and lived with a certain regularity at Charlottenburg, having a family of three children. Under the influence of religious impressions the prince once more put away the lady, and gave her one of his attendants, Mr. Reitz, for husband; but on his accession to the throne in 1786 her empire over him revived, and she made herself one of the most important personages in the kingdom. She was created Countess of Lichtenau, travelled into Italy, was presented at the courts of Tuscany and Naples, and returned prouder and more powerful than ever. In the king's last illness, 1797, she surrounded him with her creatures, and during his interview with the queen and royal family she supported his dying head. By his successor she was imprisoned for eighteen months in the fortress of Glogau, and her property confiscated. When Napoleon entered Berlin he commanded her estates to be restored, and she lived in easy obscurity till her death at Berlin on the 9th of June, 1820.—R. H.
LICHTENBERG, Georg Christoph, a celebrated German physicist, was born 1st July, 1742, at Ober Ramstadt, near Darmstadt, of which his father was then metropolitan or rural dean. Subsequently the elder Lichtenberg removed with his eighteen children, of whom Georg was the youngest, to Darmstadt, where he became general superintendent. Throughout life Lichtenberg retained the greatest veneration for both his parents, and for his mother particularly that kind of veneration which made him, as he says, invoke her help as his tutelary saint when he was in circumstances of temptation or affliction. The elder Lichtenberg died when Georg was still in early boyhood, but not before he had instilled into the mind of his son the love both of learning and of piety. In his eighth year the studious boy became a hunchback, and thus condemned by a deformity of body, as well as inclined by precocious intellect, to a sedentary life, he made astonishing progress in many branches of knowledge. Attending the gymnasium of Darmstadt, young Lichtenberg attracted the notice of the then
