ment from foreign sovereigns. His greatest literary work is a treatise on physics, entitled "Introductio ad Philosophiam Naturalem;" it first appeared in 1726, and from time to time improved and augmented editions were published, the last after the author's death. Through well-directed and unflagging labour in experimenting, he added to physical science a vast mass of accurate detailed knowledge as to the properties of bodies, such as specific gravities, friction, cohesion, strength, capillarity, and electrical and magnetical properties; and set an excellent example to subsequent inquirers of the true method of investigating the phenomena of nature.—W. J. M. R.
MUSSET, Louis Charles Alfred de, known in literature as Alfred de Musset, one of the most brilliant writers of modern France, was born at Paris on the 11th November, 1810, and died there on the 1st May, 1857. He was the son of Musset Pathay, and studied at the college Henri Quatre, where he was the intimate companion of the duke of Orleans, eldest son of Louis Philippe, who ever afterwards regarded him in the light of a friend. He commenced his career by a drama taken from the English Opium Eater. It was not successful, but the young author was not deterred. He soon fell in with the romantic school, Victor Hugo, Lamartine, Alfred de Vigny, &c., and by his tales and poems made himself a wide reputation. His "Contes d'Espagne," which appeared in 1830, made him one of the Parisian literary celebrities. These were followed in the next year by the "Nouvelles Poésies," which the public received with great approbation. With George Sand he went to Italy, in what particular capacity is not explained; but the result of the journey was a new work, the "Confession d'un Enfant du Siècle." Several of his writings, not intended for the stage, were dramatized and played with the utmost success, whereas those afterwards written specially for representation did not please the public. This may have arisen from a falling off in the imaginative power of the author, caused by the use of "the emerald poison," a frailty almost unknown among the educated classes of France until very recent times. While writing plays, poems, and romances, the duke of Orleans procured for him the office of librarian to the ministry of the interior. This appointment he lost in 1848, but Napoleon III. reinstated him. His death took place at the early age of forty-seven, hastened probably by the indulgence that had already destroyed his powers of composition, and which he bewailed with the bitter lamentation that wrung the heart of Coleridge. "Frederic et Bernerette." is considered his best work.—P. E. D.
MUSTAPHA I., Emperor of the Turks, succeeded his brother Achmet in 1617, being the first sultan who succeeded a brother. He appears to have been an imbecile tyrant, incapable of governing. From his prodigious follies he was thrown into prison for five years, but again reached the throne. Finally, he was deposed and strangled in 1639 at the age of fifty-four.—P. E. D.
MUSTAPHA II., twenty-second Ottoman sultan, succeeded his uncle Achmet II. in 1695. He was then thirty-two years of age. He engaged in war with the imperialists, but was routed by Prince Eugene in 1697 at the battle of Zenta. Compelled to negotiate the treaty of Carlowitz, he had to cede Transylvania to the imperialists, Azof to the Russians, and the Morea to the Venetians. In 1703 a revolt broke out at Constantinople, and Mustapha was induced or constrained to resign the throne in favour of his brother Achmet III. He then retired to the seraglio and died the following year, without having fulfilled the hopes that at his accession were entertained of his reign.
MUSTAPHA III. was the son of Achmet III., and ascended the throne of Turkey in 1757, succeeding his cousin Osman III. He had been, if not imprisoned, at least kept in confinement for the long period of twenty-seven years, and the officers of state presuming that his character must be weakened, expected to govern the kingdom in his name; but they were mistaken. Mustapha had a will of his own, and after arranging the affairs of state at home he plunged into war with Russia. The campaign of 1769 was by no means successful. He lost Moldavia and part of Wallachia. The next campaign was even more disastrous, and in 1771 the Crimea fell into the hands of the Russians. He died on the 21st January, 1774, at the age of fifty-eight. His reign was marked by the commencement of Russian influence in Greece, which paved the way for Greek independence.
MUSTAPHA IV., twenty-ninth Ottoman sultan, succeeded Selim III. in 1807. Troubles, insurrections, revolts, and assassinations marked the beginning of his reign, which throughout was one of adversity both at home and abroad. The war with Russia was terminated by the peace of Tilsit, but the janissaries and the partisans of the late sultan could not be pacified, and Mustapha was ultimately dethroned in 1808. He was then thrown into prison, and on the breaking out of a new revolt was there strangled on the 15th November. He was succeeded by Mahmoud II.—P. E. D.
MUTIUS. See Scævola.
MUZIANO, Girolamo, was born at Aquafredda, near Brescia, in 1530, and was the scholar of the celebrated Romanino of Brescia. He then studied the works of Titian at Venice, and was especially captivated by his landscape backgrounds. About 1550 Muziano settled in Rome, and from his landscapes, then a new form of art, became known as Girolamo de' Paesi. He, however, painted figures as well as landscapes, and soon vindicated his position as one of the best masters in Rome; even Michelangelo is said to have much praised the works of Muziano. He was not entirely led away by the anatomical mannerism of the day, but rather managed to combine something of the particular qualities of the Roman school, with the vigorous drawing of the Florentine. He painted many altarpieces, and was much employed also as a portrait painter. He was likewise an architect; he built the Cappella Gregoriana for Gregory XIII.; and he was mainly the founder of the Roman academy of St. Luke, and contributed greatly also to bringing the Roman manufactory of mosaics to perfection. Muziano's masterpiece was considered the "Raising of Lazarus," which was formerly in the church of Santa Maria Maggiore, but is now lost; the picture of this subject in the Louvre, was brought from the church of San Luigi dei Francesi. He painted it several times, once in 1556 for the cathedral of Orvieto; and there was a picture of this subject in the Orleans gallery by him. Two of his principal works are still in Santa Maria degli Angeli at Rome. He completed the drawings of the bas-reliefs of the Trajan column at Rome, commenced by Giulio Romano, and afterwards engraved by Villamena. He died at Rome on the 27th of April, 1592.—(Baglione, Vite del Pittori, &c., Naples, 1733.)—R. N. W.
MUZIO, Girolamo, courtier and controversialist, born in Padua, 12th March, 1496; died at a villa between Florence and Siena in 1576. His family name of Nuzio, in accordance with the taste of his day, he exchanged for the classical adaptation Muzio. He resided successively in various countries, and served several masters, but without amassing wealth. His works handed down to us treat of a variety of subjects, both in prose and verse. Amongst them his theological writings, mainly directed against the contemporaneous religious movement, acquired for him the title of Hammer of the Heretics of his times.—C. G. R.
MYCONIUS, Frederick, born at Litchtenfeldt in Franconia, in 1491—one of Luther's intimate friends—was a leading agent in effecting the Reformation. After spending some years in a monastery, where he devoted himself to the study of the holy scriptures, the schoolmen, and St. Augustine, he was ordained a priest and became a preacher at Vinaria. Here having met with the writings of Luther, he adopted his views, and immediately began to preach the truth with boldness and success. In 1524 he went to Gotha, and continued to labour there till the time of his death. He visited the Netherlands frequently along with the elector of Saxony, and was once his ambassador to England. His works, which are numerous, include a history of the Reformation from 1518 to 1542. He died in 1546.—D. W. R.
MYCONIUS, Oswald, born at Lucerne in Switzerland in 1488, the friend of Erasmus and Glareanus, was protestant minister at Basle, where he died in 1552.—D. W. R.
MYDDELTON, Sir Hugh, a famous English merchant and engineer, was born at Galch-hill, near Denbigh, North Wales, about 1555, and died in or near London on the 10th of December, 1631. He was the sixth son of Richard Myddelton of Galch-hill, governor of Denbigh castle, and member of an old and honourable family of North Wales, many of whose descendants have become distinguished in various ways. He was bred in the city of London to the trade of a goldsmith, which then embraced the profession of banking; and he carried on that business in Bassishaw or Basinghall Street to the end of his life with honour and success, and combined with it many useful undertakings in merchandise and manufactures. In 1603 he was elected to represent his native town of Denbigh in parliament. The work upon which his fame rests is the well-known
