as member of a diplomatic mission to England. When, in 1831, the Russian armies had reconquered Poland, Count Valerian found himself destitute and an exile in England. He at once resorted to his pen as a means of subsistence, and to the day of his death diligently employed his great intellectual powers and large acquisitions of knowledge in familiarizing the public of Great Britain with Polish history, both political and ecclesiastical. His best known work is the "Historical Sketch of the Reformation in Poland," 2 vols., 1838-40. His high character and refined manners procured his entrance into the best society of London during twenty years of exile. The last five years of his life were spent in Edinburgh, where he died December 22, 1855. For a list of his works, see Gent. Mag., for 1856, vol. i., p. 200.—R. H.
* KRASZEVSKI, Josef Ignacy, a voluminous Polish writer of both poetry and prose. He was born in Warsaw on the 26th of July, 1812, and was educated at Wilna. At the revolution of 1831 he was arrested with others, and detained in prison till 1834. On being liberated he set out on his travels, and accumulated materials for his first publications, "Reminiscences of Poland, Volhynia, and Lithuania," 2 vols., Wilna, 1840. Returning home, he retired into the country in Volhynia, and avoiding the dangerous subject of politics, occupied himself with literary labours. No subject came amiss to his pen. In the department of criticism he published two series of "Literary Studies," in 1842-43. Of history and topography he has given examples in his "Lithuania," 1847-50; and his "History of Wilna," 1840. He is the author of several Polish novels and poems. Among the latter, two epics "Anafielas," and "Szatan and Kobietæ," have passed through many editions. He is said to have given to the world in all one hundred and twenty volumes of his own works. In 1853 he was made curator of the schools of Volhynia and director of the theatre of Zytomiez.—R. H.
KRATZENSTEIN, Christian Gottlieb, a German physician, naturalist, physicist, astronomer, and mechanician, was born at Wernigerode, of which his father was burgomaster, on the 30th of January, 1723, and died at Copenhagen on the 6th of July, 1795. He was for a time one of the professors in the university of Halle, which he left in 1748 to become a member of the Academy of Sciences of St. Petersburg. In 1753 he became professor of medicine and experimental physics at Copenhagen, which office he held until 1773. His only medical writings were two memoirs, relating respectively to the use of electricity and of centrifugal force in the cure of diseases. He was the author of a long series of papers on various physical subjects, published for the most part in the Acta Petropolitana. Of these the one which has obtained most attention, is entitled "Sur la naissance et la formation des voyelles" (Act. Petrop., 1780), and comprises a description of a machine which the author constructed, for pronouncing live vowel sounds.—W. J. M. R.
KRAUS or CRUSIUS, Martin, a learned German miscellaneous writer, born near Bamberg in 1526. He was an accomplished Greek and Latin scholar, and was professor of Greek and moral philosophy, or according to some writers, of polite literature and languages at Tübingen, where he died in 1607. His works are numerous, and some of them valuable. They comprise editions of classic authors, and of commentaries upon them. In 1584 he published at Basle his "Turco-Græcia," which is a collection of pieces relating to modern Greece. According to Moreri it is of great use to those who desire to know the state of Greece in the fourteenth and two following centuries, and who wish to become acquainted with modern Greek. His "Annales Suevici" is valuable and rare.—B. H. C.
KRAUSE, Johann Gottlieb, a German historian and bibliographer, born in Silesia in 1684. He studied at Leipsic, and was professor of eloquence at Wittenberg. He wrote many accounts of German and other books; a biography of Paulus Manutius; and various historical works, including "Annals of Printing to the year 1520." He died in 1736.—B. H. C.
KRAUSE, Karl Christian Friedrich, a distinguished German philosophical and masonic writer, was born at Eisenberg, duchy of Saxe-Altenburg, 6th May, 1781. After studying at Jena he successively lectured in the universities of Jena, Berlin, Göttingen, and Munich, but nowhere could obtain a chair. At Berlin he founded, conjointly with Zeune and others, the German Society (Gesellschaft für deutsche Sprache), which is still flourishing. He died at Munich, 27th September, 1832. Krause was an original and energetic thinker, and a man of the noblest character and the highest aspirations. He considered mankind but as a particle of the great world of intellectual beings, on which was imposed the task of forming itself, as it were, into one organic and complete being. All the foremost spirits should therefore unite themselves into one great confederacy for promoting this highest interest of humanity. Such a confederacy he saw in freemasonry. He was indefatigable in propounding his plans, but met with resistance and enmity from his own masonic brethren. His numerous works on philosophical subjects have greatly risen in public esteem since his death.—(See Lindemann, Darstellung des Lebens und der Wissenschaftslehre Krause's, Munich, 1839.)—K. E.
* KRAUSE, Wilhelm, a celebrated German landscape and marine painter, was born at Dessau in 1803; studied in the academy there under K. W. Kolbe, and afterwards at Berlin under Wach. He at first painted classic landscapes, but later chiefly marine subjects; to obtain studies for which he has travelled and sketched in Norway, Holland, Belgium, and on the coasts of France and Normandy. One of his most celebrated pictures is a "Storm in Bommel Fiord" (eight feet by five), painted for the late king of Prussia. He is a member of the Berlin Academy.—J. T—e.
KRAY, Paul, Baron von, an Austrian general, born at Kæsmark in Hungary, 5th February, 1735; died at Pesth, 19th January, 1804. His family was noble, and he entered the army in 1754. In 1788 he attained the rank of colonel, and was employed in the war against the Turks. In 1792 he obtained permission to serve against France under the prince of Coburg, and made the campaigns of 1793, 1794, and 1795, in the Netherlands and on the Rhine. In 1796 he was employed with the army of Wartensleben and obtained the rank of field-marshal lieutenant. At the beginning of 1799, this army commanded by Werneck being completely routed by Hoche, the general officers who served in it were brought before a military court in Vienna. Kray was acquitted after being under arrest for a fortnight. In 1799 he took the chief command of the imperial army, and opened the campaign with great spirit. He beat Scherer twice, distinguished himself at Verona, Legnano, and Magnano, and took Mantua after a siege of two months. In 1800 Kray replaced the Archduke Charles at the head of the Austrian army in Germany, but compelled to give way before Moreau, he was recalled, and retired to his estates.—P. E. D.
* KREMER, Peter, one of the most prolific of the historical and genre painters of Belgium, was born at Antwerp in 1801, and studied under M. van Brée. He is a member of the Antwerp Academy; exceedingly laborious and somewhat dry in execution; but intelligent and sympathetic in his conception of a subject. His works generally refer to some domestic or biographical incident connected with the history of the Netherlands, or some circumstance in the life of one of the great old Flemish painters. Several of his pictures have been engraved.—J. T—e.
KREUTZER, Conradin, a musician, was born at Mösskirch in the duchy of Baden, where his father was a miller, November 22, 1782; he died at Riga in 1849. He became a singing boy at the monastery of Zwyfallen in 1791, where his musical talent was cultivated by Ernst Weinrauch, a monk, who directed the music of the establishment. Upon the death of this intelligent preceptor, Kreutzer was removed to another monastery at Schussenried, where in 1797 he was appointed organist and professor of music. His relatives were adverse to his following music as a profession, and obliged him therefore to relinquish his appointment and enter the university of Freiburg as a student of medicine in 1799. His original predilection could not however be uprooted, and he wrote an opera for the Freiburg theatre, "Die lächerlische Werbung," which was produced in 1801. Having overcome the objections of his friends, Kreutzer went to Vienna to devote himself entirely to music. He became a pupil of Albrechtsberger, and was greatly befriended by Schuppanzigh the violinist, who procured him many opportunities for the display of his talent. After producing several operas with success, he went to Stuttgart, where the same good fortune attended him in the theatre, and where he was appointed director of the conservatorium. He was supplanted in this situation when the king died in 1816, and he then made an extensive tour through Germany, leaving memorials of his talent in every town he visited. In 1818 he was engaged as music director by the Prince Von Fürstenberg; and he lived for three years at Donaueschingen, labouring conjointly with Kalliwoda.
