304 STAMMERING STANFIELD spasms; a rheumatic or neuralgic affection of the muscles of the face, jaw, tongue, lips, &c., or of the vocal cords; a condition of intoxica- tion ; chorea ; or in some cases a habitual imi- tation of stammering. Occasional stammering may be produced by a temporary confusion of mind, without any anatomical defect of the vocal organs. Stuttering is seldom or never organic. The stutterer is often in perfect health, and the vocal organs are not in any way diseased or deformed. His difficulty con- sists in the momentary inability to pronounce certain words or syllables. The stoppage of sound usually takes place at the first syllable, though occasionally at the second or third. Words beginning with &, , ^, <?, p, &, or m usually give the stutterer the most trouble, because they require the closing of the lips or the pressing of the tongue against the roof of the mouth for their enunciation, and an im- mediate reopening for the vowel which fol- lows ; while he keeps the lips closed, and com- presses the cavity of the mouth in the attempt to force out the sound. Most stutterers can sing without difficulty, the action of the vocal organs being much less frequently interrupted in singing than in speaking. Stutterers may be classed under two heads, mental or psychi- cal and physical. Under the stimulus of pleas- ant or joyful emotions, the first class experi- ence little difficulty in conversation; under depressing influences, their utterance is seri- ously disturbed. The physical stutterer is rendered worse by unpleasant weather, great fatigue, vicious indulgence, and the excessive use of tobacco or alcoholic drinks. The num- ber of bad stammerers is estimated by Colom- bat at 1 in 5,000 ; but the number having some degree of impediment is not probably less than 1 in 500. Only about one tenth of these are females. The proper treatment of either stuttering or stammering is indicated by the cause which induces it. In the case of the stammerer there should be a thorough investi- gation for an organic cause. The clipping of the uvula, the removal of a portion of the ton- sils, or the excision of a wedge-shaped piece from a tongue too large for the mouth, the use of electrical or other remedies for the cure of paralysis, the cauterization of ulcers in the mouth, the removal of irregular or the inser- tion of false teeth, and the administration of tonics for debility, have each resulted in the cure of cases of stammering ; but no one of these will answer for all or perhaps a majority of cases. In stuttering also, the cause will indicate to some extent the method of cure. The muscles must be educated to uniform obedience to the will, and the will trained to steady and intelligent control over the muscles and nerves. A course of lessons in enuncia- tion, by a capable teacher, will often effect a complete cure. Dr. J. M. Warren of Boston lays down the rules that treatment for impedi- ments of speech should be commenced between the ages of 8 and 12 ; and that "little perma- nent advantage will be gained, in the majority of cases, unless the treatment be resolutely persevered in for one or two years." STAMP ACTS, laws for the raising of revenue by requiring the use of government stamps on the paper or parchment by means of which business is transacted or privileges conferred, or upon packages of goods put up for sale, &c. Such laws were introduced into England, in the reign of William and Mary, from Holland, and from that time to the present have been a favorite mode of raising revenue. Each stamp represents a tax of a certain sum which must be paid to obtain it, and its payment is enforced by imposing penalties on those who undertake to evade the tax, and by declaring the transaction in which it should have been made use of invalid if the stamp is not ob- tained and used. The name of stamp act was made odious in America by the attempt in 1765 to tax the colonies in this form ; but after the Union was perfected by means of the constitution a few stamp duties were for a time laid. During the civil war of 1861-'5 stamp taxes were laid on almost every form of legal instrument, bank drafts and checks, conveyances of land, &c., and on the packages of a great variety of manufactured goods. Many of these have since been taken off, but the stamp taxes on manufactures are generally retained. (See TAXES.) STMCHIO. See Cos. STANDISH, Miles, a soldier of New England, born in Lancashire, England, about 1584, died in Duxbury, Mass., Oct. 3, 1656. He had served in the Netherlands, and on coming to Plymouth with the first company in 1620 he was chosen captain by the pilgrims, though not a member of their church. He had great courage, energy, and determination, with a fiery temper, and rendered important services to the early settlers. He commanded frequent expeditions against the savages who annoyed the settlements, and by the boldness and skill of his attacks inspired them with great awe of his military prowess. He visited England in 1625 as an agent for the colony, and brought supplies in 1626. He then settled at Duxbury, and for the remainder of his life held the office of magistrate or assistant for that town. In 1649 he took part in the settlement of Bridge- water. The corner stone of a monument to his memory was laid on Captain's Hill, Dux- bury, Oct. 7, 1872. The singular circum- stances of his marriage are the subject of a celebrated poem by Longfellow, " The Court- ship of Miles Standish." STANFIEID, Clarkson, an English painter, born in Sunderland about 1798, died at Hampstead, May 18, 1867. He followed the sea in early life, and was afterward distinguished as a the- atrical scene painter. In 1827 he exhibited at the British institution his first large picture, "Wreckers off Fort Rouge;" in 1832 he was elected an associate of the royal academy, and in 1835 an academician. He painted nearly
