latitude 24° the breadth rapidly decreases to about 125 miles on the northern border. Burma has an area, exclusive of dependent native States, of 168,550 square miles, and is divided for administrative purposes into Upper and Lower Burma. Lower Burma occupies the narrow strip of coast south of about latitude 22°, and Upper Burma occupies the remainder of the country extending inland as far south as latitude 18° 30′. Lower Burma comprises the former Kingdom of Arakan (q.v.) in the north and Tenasserim (q.v.) in the south (both acquired by the British at the close of the first Burmese War in 1826), and between these two the territory of the old Kingdom of Pegu (q.v.), acquired by the British at the close of the second Burmese War in 1852. Upper Burma corresponds to the Kingdom of Burma as it existed at the time of the British conquest in 1885. Burma is bounded on the north by Assam and Tibet; on the east by China, French Indo-China, and Siam; on the south by the Bay of Bengal; and on the west by the Bay of Bengal, Bengal, and Assam. It extends from the lower waters of the Bay of Bengal on the south to the eastern end of the Himalayan Mountains on the north. It is traversed by a series of mountain ranges lying nearly north and south, while in the intervening valleys flow the waters of the two great rivers, the Irrawaddy and the Salwin, with many large branches, and also several smaller rivers reaching the coast. Thus the surface consists of many mountain ranges alternating closely with valleys, most of which are narrow, the valley of the Irrawaddy being by far the broadest and most important economically.
The mountains on the northern boundary, separating Burma from Tibet, reach a height of 15,000 feet. The ranges which traverse the country in general diminish in height southward. ranging from 8000 to 10,000 feet in the north to 6000 to 8000 feet in the latitude of Mandalay, and to 4000 to 6000 feet between the parallels of 18° and 20°. The Irrawaddy and Salwin rivers rise in Tibet and are large streams at their entrance into Burma. The upper part of the valley of the Irrawaddy is narrow, as are the valleys of its upper tributaries. Indeed, above Bhamo, at the mouth of the Taping, the main river flows in a mountain gorge, and immediately below this point, in cutting through a mountain range, it flows in a narrow cañon. A few miles above Mandalay it enters a broad plain, through which it passes; a hundred miles below Mandalay it is joined by the Chindwin, its largest branch. Its delta is very extensive, being nearly 200 miles in length, with an area of 18,000 square miles. These delta lands are extremely fertile, are densely populated, and are highly cultivated. The mean discharge of the river at its mouth is estimated at 480,000 cubic feet per second, or about the same as that of the Ganges. It is subject to great floods in the rainy season, the flow at this time being often eighteen times as great as at low water. It is navigable for large river steamers as far as Mandalay, and for smaller craft some distance above Bhamo.
The Salwin is second only to the Irrawaddy in volume. This river throughout its course in Burma flows in a narrow valley, hemmed in by mountains, and affording little level land for cultivation. It is navigable for only a short distance, owing to frequent rapids. The Sittang heads south of Mandalay, and flows in a broad valley between the Irrawaddy and the Salwin. There are hundreds of minor streams in this well-watered country, but as they partake of the nature of mountain torrents, or are fed by them, they are useless for navigation, at least during the dry season. After the rainy season has begun the larger rivers are crowded with the native boats, for the waterways are the highways of the country. Even before the rain sets in the great rivers begin to swell, owing to the melting of the Himalayan snows. Toward the beginning of July the rivers and their tributaries usually rise ten to twenty feet, submerging their banks and flooding the low lands. In many places, where in dry weather a cart-track is found, there is, during the wet season, a creek navigable by heavily laden boats. The whole aspect of the country and the mode of life are thus changed with the alternations from dry to wet seasons. The villages of the delta are accessible by water, and it is at this season that the heavy traffic of the country is carried on. At Mandalay, where the Irrawaddy is about 2 miles wide, the water rises 30 feet, and in the Salwin there is a rise of 50 feet. These high-water levels are maintained with some fluctuations till September.
Climate. The climate of Burma ranges from that of the eastern Himalayas on the north to that of the tropical oceanic regions on the south, most of the country being in the torrid zone. The monsoons have a powerful effect upon the climate: in winter they blow from the north and northeast off the land, and produce the dry season, and in summer they blow from the south and southwest off the sea, causing a heavy rainfall on the coast, and, moving up the river valleys, they carry a heavy precipitation far inland. The rainfall on the coast ranges from 120 to 160 inches, and is much greater than this in some special localities. In the interior it is distributed irregularly, being affected by the local topography, but it is almost everywhere ample in amount, and in many places excessive, ranging from 40 to 160 inches. The temperature changes with the latitude and altitude and proximity to the sea, and with the direction of the monsoons. The coast temperatures are very constant, ranging from 80° to 90°. In the interior the contrast is greater, the temperature ranging from 50° or 60° in winter to 80° or 90° in summer, while at considerable altitudes, in the north, the country is subject to frosts in the cold season. The great fertility of the soil in Burma is further increased in the lowlands by the fertilizing overflows of the rivers.
Flora. All the land not under cultivation is clothed with dense tropical forests, containing many fine dye and cabinet woods; and in the northern part of the country there is a great deal of teak, one of the most important exports. This wood has a peculiar odor, due to the presence of an oil which repels insects and protects it from decay. The oil-tree, yielding gallons of oil every season, is found at the headwaters of the Salwin. Ironwood, which grows in among the bamboo, is abundant and widely utilized. Below the upper forests are the sandstone and laterite, on which the forests are open and stunted. Other trees are the palm, cocoanut, betel, and palmyra. Breaking the ever-green monotony of the riverside is the nipa-palm, with immense fronds somewhat like the cocoanut. The
