of an elcetro-magnctic engine which he had him-
self invented. In the course of leseaiches on elec-
tricity he was able to show that in electrolysis
the aniount of heat absorbed was equivalent to
the heat produced during the original combina-
tion of the elements. Joule was the lirst to as-
certain the mechanical equivalent of heat (see
Heat), and in an address delivered in 1847 at
Manchester lie stated the doctrine of the conser-
vation of energj-. The paper was hardly noticed
by press or scientists, and a similar paper pre-
sented to the British Association would also have
been passed over had its merits not been seen by
William Tliomson, afterwards Lord Kelvin. Joule
worked for forty years to determine the mechani-
cal equivalent of" heat, using both electric cur-
rents and the mechanical friction of water, and
obtained a number of values for this quantity,
^ilany researches on electricity and thermo-dyna-
mics" are to be credited to him, and his name is
given to the unit of work, while Joule's law for
determining the amount of energj' in an electric
circuit has become fundamental in electrical sci-
ence. Dr. Joule received the Copley and other
medals and numerous honors from the leading
universities and scientific societies throughout the
world. His Scientific Papers, in two volumes,
were published in 1885 and 1887, and numerous
valuable communications from him are to be
found in the various English journals, and pro-
ceedings of societies.
JOUEDAIN", zhr«Tr'daN', JIoNSlEUR. The leading character in Jloli&re's Bourgeois gcntil- homme, who after gaining a fortune as a trades- man endeavors to acquire the graces of polite society by means of masters and professors. He is surprised to be informed that he has talked prose all his life without being conscious of the fact.
JOURDAN", zhoor'diix', .Teax B.^ptiste, Count {17G2-18.'5.3). A French marshal. He was born April 29, 1702, at Limoges, where his father was a surgeon. He entered the army in 1778 and served under Count d'Estaing in the war of American independence. On returning to France in 1784 .Jourdan married and opened a milliner's shop at Limoges. On the breaking out of the Revolution he abandoned trade and became the captain of the company of National Guards raised in Limoges. Under Dinuouriez he rose to be chief of battalion. and in 1703 was made suc- cessively general of brigade and general of di- vision. Finally in the autumn of that year he obtained the command of the Army of the North and gained an important victory at Wattignics against the Austrians (October 1.5-16, 1703). In 1704, as head of the Army of the Sambre and Meuse. he defeated the Austrians again at Fleu- rus and overran Belgiinn. forcing the enemy b.ack across the Rhine. In 1705 he was less successful in his campaigns; for, having crossed the Rhine at Diisse!dorf.he was defeated by the Austrians at HiJehst (October 1 1. 1705) . In 1796 he pushed his waj' far into Germany, but was driven back by theArchduke Charlesat Wetzlar (.Tune 15), Amberg (August 241. and Wiirzburg (September 3). This discomfiture led him to resign his com- mand. In 1700 the Directory intrusted him with the command of the Army of the Danube : but he was defeated by the Archduke Charles at Ostraeh and at Stockach in ^March of the same year, and was superseded. Although he opposed the coup d'«at of the Eighteenth Brumaire, the First Con- sul employed him in ISOO in the reorganization! and administration of Bicdmont ; and on the- establishment of the Emiure in 1804. he was made a marshal. In 1803 he had been given the command in Italy, but in 1805 he was replaced by ^lass.'na. He was sent with King Joseph to Naples (1806). and in 1808 be went with him to Spain as chief of staff. Louis XVIII. ap- pointed him conunandcr of the seventh military division, and made him a peer of France; but his republican princililes led him to enter heart- ily into the revolutionary movement of 1830, and for a short time after 'the July Revolution he acted as Minister of Foreign Affairs. His last ^•ears were spent as governor of the Hotel des invalides, and there he died November 23, 1S33. As member and president of the Council of Five Hundred (1797-00), Jourdan was instrumental in planning and establishing the system of mili- tary conscription tliroughout France. Unlike niaiiy of Napoleon's marshals, Jourdan lived and died poor. He was the author of Oiiirtiiions de Varmce du Danube (Baris, 1799), and Mcmoires pour serrir a Vhistoire de hi campagne dc 11'.H> (Baris, 1819). His ilfmoirrs militaires, guerre d'Espagne were published in 1809.
JOURNAL DE SAINT-PETERSBOURG,. zhiTijr'nal' dp sax pa'ters'brmr' ( Fr., Journal of Saint Betersburg). A political daily paper, at Saint Betersburg, founded in 1825. It is issued in French, and is the organ of the Ministry of Forei;;n .Vfl'airs.
JOURNAL DES D^BATS, <la dfi'ba' ( Fr.. Journal of the Debates). A Baris daily pajjer. founded in 1789 to report the sessions of the- National Assembly. Since 1800 it has been owned by members of the Berlin family. In politics it pursues a moderate Republican course. It is published daily in two editions.
JOURNALISM. See Newsp.^pee; Beriodi- C.L.
JOURNALISM, CoLiJJGE. Like the system of Greek letter fraternities, college journalism, embracing those periodicals edited and publislied whollv or partly by undergraduates, and devoted to student interests, is a fonn of student activity which is almost entirely restricted to American institutions. It is difi'erentiated from the de- partmental and ollicial publications of the uni- versity by the fact that its s|)here embraces all the varied interests of the stu<lent body, and not alone the educational, and that it provides the channel for the exiuession of student opinion, formerly voiced through tlie (nation and the de- bating society. Students in the English univer- sities have from time to time attempted to estab- lish publications similar to college papers in the I'nited States, the most notable of which. The Snob, was edited by Thackeray while at Cam- bridge in 1820. Other sporadic efforts in tlie direction of college journalism in England havc rarely lasted longer than the college life of their original projectors. The Oxford and Canibridire underffraduates' joui-nal is little more than an oihcial calendar.' and is in no sense a college paper as the term is understood in America. In the United States the college paper originally took the form of a periodical devoted to the publication of e.ssays. serious poems, and criti- cisms, and often supplemented the literary so- cieties. With the broadening of the student life there came a change in the character of the
