ITALY. 50 been in Piedmont already a suggestion of national indeiHiidcfiice in the agitations of 1820-21. Now, the patriot (liuseppe Mazzini issue'd an address to the new King, who was l<nown to hold more liberal views than others of his house, ealling upon him to become tli? leader and liberator of Italy. From this time the idea of Italian unifica- tion and independence grew in strength and found its hope in the Sardinian monarchy, for it had become apparent that the cause of reactioa had its only support in Austria, which must be driven from the Peninsula by some power strong enough to assume the leadership in Italy. Maz- zini at the same time founded the secret political society. Young Italy (q.v. ), whose propaganda was republican, but also nationalist. The impulse to a national upri-ing was all'ordcd by Po])e Pius IX.. who, immediately after his election in 1S4G. entered upon an extensive series of reforms in the Papal States. An amnesty was proclaimed for political oti'enders, political exiles were per- mitted to return, the liberty of the press was established, the nighest offices were opened to laymen, and a council of notables was summoned to initiate new rcfonns. The example of the Pope was followed by several Italian jirinccs. Reforms were introduced in Lucca and Tuscany, and, above all, in Piedmont, v liere a great ad- vance was made toward constitutional govern- ment (1847). Refonn, however, was only preparatory to revolution. In January, 1848, the people of Palermo rose and drove out the Xeapolit,in garrison, and on February 10th Ferdinand II. granted his people a constitution and summoned a separate Parliament for Sicily. At the same time Leopold II. issued a constitu- tion for Tuscany, Charles Albert did the same for Piedmont, and Pius IX.. who had now begun to feel alarmed at the rapidity with which the course of reform was progressing, consented, im- willingly, to a constitution for the Papal States (March 14, 1848), The revolutionary outbreak in Vienna on March 13, 1848, which drove Metter- nich from power, was the signal for a rising in Milan (March Ifith). The .Austrian troops, under Radetzky. were driven from the city after a five days' battle with the populace. On March 22d Venice rose imder Manin. and expelled the Austrians, and on the following day the Republic of Saint Mark was reest^iblished with JIanin at its head. The rulers of Parma and Modena were forced to flee. In Piedmont there was a clamor for war to drive the Austrians from Italy, and Charles Albert, after long hesitation, decided to mobilize his army and go to the assistance of Lombardy, which he entered !March 2.5th, ac- claimed as the liberator of Italy. He was joined by I,'?,000 Xeapolitan troops and contingents from Tuscany and Lombardy. In May. however. Fer- dinand II. of Xaplcs. after bombarding this capi- tal, reestablished his despotic sway, and the sup- port of the Xcapolitans was withdrawn from the cause of liberation. The Pope. too. declared him- self against war with Austria. On .July 2,5th the Piedmontese suffered an overwhelming defeat at Custozza, and on August 6th Radetzky reentered !Milan, An armistice was concluded on August nth, by the terms of which Charles Albert was to evacuate Lombardy, Venetia, and the duchies of Parma and Modena. The war party at Turin, however, spurred on the King to renew hostilities, and in March. 1840. the armistice was suspended. The Austrians under Radetzky crossed the Ticino, ITALY. and on March 23d overwhelmed the Piedmontese army at Xovara. On the night after the battle Charles Albert abdicated in favor of his son, Vic- tor Emmanuel 11. In Central and Southern Italy reaction was triuui[)hant. Pojie Pius IX., who saw that the revolulionarj- movement was fast getting beyond liis control, in September. 1848, appointed a new ministry under the leadership of Count I'ellcgrino Rossi, to whom he looked for the restoration of the Papal intluence. Rossi was hated by the Republicans and the ultra-Catholics, and was assassinated on Xovenibcr 1.5th. The Pope tied from Rome on the 24th, leaving the party of Mazzini in control, and took refuge in Gaeta, On February 5, 1849, the temporal power of the Pope was abolished, and Rome was con- stituted a republic. In Tiscany the ])eople rose under Gucrrazzi, and compelled Leopold II. to flee. In Ajiril a French army of 8000 men was dispatclied under Marshal Oudinot to suppress the Roman lii'jjublic. Oudinot entered Rome in .July, in spite of the heroic resistance of Garibaldi, and the Papal authority was reestab- lished. Austrian troops had overrun Tuscany in April. Ferdinand II. had dispatched an army under Felangeri to reduce Sicily, ilessina was bombarded and taken in September, 1848, and Palenno occupied in May, 1849. The old regime was reestablished in the island. The wave of reaction flooded the whole of Italy, except Pied- mont. The Austrian troops came back with more excesses and brutality than before, and a merci- less course of discipline began for the unhappy country. The Kingdom of Sardinia, with the liberal Constitution which Charles All)ert had granted in 184S, remained the only refuge of nationalism and liberalism, though with it.s diverse and mixed population, alien to the rest of Italy, it was not the most promising ground for the national propaganda. Victor Emmanuel II, adhered firmly to the Constitulicm, retained the tricolor flag, the symbol of free Italy, continued the liberty of the press, and encouraged political refugees from the other States to make Piedmont their asylum. The advent of Cavour (q.v.) as head of the ilinistry (18-52) opened a vigorous, aggres- sive policy, in which the Minister was fully supported by the King. To make Sardinia felt as a force among the nations, and able to com- mand a hearing, the active alliance with England and France, which made .Sardinia a participant in the Crimean War (q.v.), was effected. Then in the Congress of Paris, in 1850, Cavour was able to urge the condition of Italy as a matter of international concern, and to secure an acknowledgment of the claim, in spite of the protest of Austria. The disposition of Xapoleon III. offering the most hope of active assistance, Cavour effected an understanding with the French Emperor in a meeting at Plombi&res in .July. 18.58, and proceeded to increase the armed strength of Piedmont, acting boldly with a view to bringing on a war with Austria. The powers endeavored to arrange matters and to bring about the dis- armament of both Sardinia and Austria, but the latter rofised. and in an ultimatum (.pril 2.3, 18.59) demanded the disarmament of Sardinia. This being refused. Austria opened hostilities. France came to the aid of Sardinia, and the allied armies won with some difliculty the battles of IMagenta (June 4th) and Solferino (.Tune 24th). All X'orthern Italy was preparing to join Sar-
