ITALY. 51 ITALY. dinia, when Napoleon deserted his ally and con- cluded the preliminary treaty of Villafranca, July 11. 1859. By the Treaty of Zurich, Xovember 10th, between France, Austria, and [Sardinia, Aus- tria ceded Lonibardy, with the exception of Man- tua and Peschiera, to France, which was to transfer them to Sardinia, but retained its hold on Venetia. The Grand Duke of Tuscany and the Dukes of Parma and Modena, who had been driven out, were to be restored only at the de- mand of their subjects made without compulsion by anv foreign power. A confederation under the Pope 'was proiX)sed for Central Italy. This, how- ever, the jjeople of the Central States rejected. A plebiscite was rendered favorable to the union of the duchies and the Romagna with Sardinia (March, 1S60). The Pope excommimicated Vic- tor Emmanuel and his people, and Austria and Naples protested, but Napoleon III. supported Sardinia. As the price of French assistance. Napoleon exacted the cession of Savoy and Nice, which became a part of France. The situa- tion created by the victories in the cause of national freedom in the northern half of Italy invited the great patriot leader Garibaldi to undertake the task of liberating the South. In April, 18(i0, Palermo rose against Francis II., the successor to the odious Ferdinand II. on the throne of the Two Sicilies. On the 6th of May Ciaribaldi, with about a thousand vol- unteers, embarked at Genoa to go to the aid of the revolutionists. He landed at Marsala on May 11th, and his forces were soon increased to 4000 men. He declared himself dictator of Sicily in the name of Victor Emmanuel, 'King of Italy,' and on .June 6th he entered Palermo. On July 20th he defeated the Neapolitans at Milazzo. Messina, the last stronghold of the Bourbons in Sicily, fell on .July 2.5th, and Gari- baldi with 5000 men crossed into Italy (August 20-21) meeting with no resistance. On Septem- ber 7th he entered Naples with a small escort, Francis II. having fled to Gaeta. after making a vain attempt to save his throne by the grant of a constitution and the promise of many reforms. The liberator proclaimed the reign of Victor Em- manuel. The Sardinian Government had been openly in s>Tnpathy with Garibaldi, but had care- fully abstained from aflfording any pretext for the intervention of the foreign powers. This contin- gency, however, seemed to be threatened when Garibaldi, not satisfied with conquering the Two Sicilies, prepared to invade the States of the Church. There was also the danger that Gari- baldi might come to grief against the Neapolitan army, which was still loyal to Francis II.. and which, 40,000 strong, was holding the line of the Volturno. Victor Emmanuel, therefore, deter- mined to assume charge of the movement for United Italy. The Sardinian forces under Fanti and Cialdini entered the Papal States, which were in revolt, and on September 8. 1860, Cialdi- ni defeated the Papal army under Lamorici&re at Castelfidardo. Garibaldi held his own against the Neapolitans on the Volturno. On Octo- ber 9th Victor Emmanuel assumed personal command at Ancona, and on November 7th he entered Naples with Garibaldi, who surrendered the dictatorship into the King's hands. Gaeta, the last stronghold of the Bourbons, held out for three months, but on the departure of the French fleet was compelled to surrender (February 13. 1861). Already had the Sicilies, Umbria, and the Marches declared by plebiscite for annexation to Sardinia (October, 18G0), and on February IS, 1861, the first Italian Parliament was opened in Turin by Victor Emmanuel. On February 26th the Parliament conferred the title of King of Italy upon Victor Emmanuel, who formally as- sumed it on March 17th. The death of Cavour. June 6, 1861, was a heavy loss to the new Kingdom, which still needed the genius of his statesmanship. A Ministry under Baron Eicasoli had a brief term of office, and was succeeded, March 31, 1802, by the Min- istry of Rattazzi, whose subser-iency to France caused much distrust among the Italian Liberals. The restlessness of Garibaldi, who was impatient of delay in the acquisition of Venetia and Rome, was a grave cause of disquiet for the Government, as it was highly important that the new State should not hastily involve itself in a new struggle without outside support. After traveling about Italy, engaging in the organization of 'rifle clubs,' the irrepressible patriot went to Sicily with the avowed intention of organizing an expedition against Rome. A royal proclamation (dictated by the fear of French intervention) declaring him to be in rebellion did not deter the Sicilians from rallying around the Garibaldian standard, and on August 22, 1862, Sicily was declared in a state of siege, the Liberal clubs were dissolved, and an armed force was dispatehed to disper.se the volunteers. Garibaldi, having landed in Calabria, was met bj- the royal troops at Aspro- monte (August 29th), and after a slight en- gagement, in which he was severely wounded, was forced to surrender. In spite of the tem- porary check to the conquest of the Papal States, their acquisition was inevitable. In 1865 Florence became the capital of Italy. This was but a step nearer toward Rome. In 1866 Italy allied herself with Prussia against Austria, and although her armv was defeated at Custozza (.June 24th), and lier fleet at Lissa (July 20th), she was enabled to participate in the Prussian triumph, and in October Venetia became part of the Kingdom of Italy. (See Seven Weeks' Was.) The protection of the Papal territory by France alone stood in the way of that com- pletion of unification which required for its fullest expression the establishment of the Gov- ernment in the Eternal City. In 1867 Garibaldi headed a new expedition against the Papal terri- tory, but Napoleon III., from motives of policy, refused to permit the extinction of the temporal power of the Pope. A French force defeated the Garibaldians after a severe engagement at Mentana (November 3d), and this event de- stroyed the good feeling which had prevailed be- tween Italy and France since 1859. At last, in 1870, the urgent necessities of the Franco-Ger- man War compelled the Emperor Napoleon to withdraw his forces, and once more Italy profited by Prussia's victories. The Italian forces en- tered the lands of the Church on September 11th, and on the 20th made their entry into Rome. The Roman people declared for union with Italy in October by 133,000 votes against 1500, and on July 2, 1871, Rome became the capital of United Italy. The problems of the new State were not sim- ple ones. The task of political organization and consolidation was complicated by the great diver- sity in economic, cultural, and social conditions, between the north and the south. The inhabitants
