MACLTJREA. 639 McMASTER. flat. The aperture was closed by a large thick operculum of peculiar form, and these opercula are often found scattered through the rocks. These shells are very abundant in the Chazy lime- stone of the Champlain and Saint Lawrence val- leys, and their spiral cross sections may be seen on the surfaces of black marble slabs quarried in those regions and used in the floors of many public buildings in the Eastern States. See Okuoviciax System. MACMAHON, mak'ma'oN', Mabie Edme Patrice Maurice de, Duke of Magenta ( 1808- 93). A marshal of France and second President of the Third Republic. He was born at Sully, in the Department of Saone-et-Loire, .June 13, 1808, of Irish ancestry. He graduated at the military school of Saint Cyr in 1827, and was attached to the general staff of the army. He was in the campaign of Algiers in 1830 and at the siege of the citadel of Antwerp in 1832. Returning to Africa, he made the long campaigns from the storming of Constantine in 1837 to the battle of Biskra in 1853, and for his brilliant ser- vices was rapidly advanced, becoming in 1852 a general of division and commander of the Legion of Honor. In 1855 he was sent to the Crimea, and in the operations against Sebas- topol led the successful assault on the Mala- koff ( September 8th ) . On returning to France he received the Grand Cross of the Legion of Honor and was made Senator. In 1857 he served against the Kabyles and in the following year was made commander-in-chief of the French forces in Algeria. In 1859. on the breaking out of the war with Austria, ilacilahon was put in command of the Second Corps, and on .June 4th at JIagenta he turned an impending defeat, due to Napoleon's inefficiency, into a great victory. For this achievement he was made a marshal of France and Duke of ilagenta. At the battle of Solferino. June 24, 1859. he again had a great share in the victory. In September, 1864, he was once more Giovernor-General of Algeria. L'pon the outbreak of the war with Germany he was placed at the head of the First Army Corps (July, 1870). On August 4th his vanguard was defeated at Weissenburg. and two days later he sustained a crushing defeat at Worth. He re- treated to Ch.llons and, placed at the head of a newly organized force of 120.000 men, was or- dered to march to the relief of Bazaine (q.v. ). In this enterprise JIacilahon displayed little of his former resolution and dash. His slow ad- vance permitted the Germans to interpose them- selves between him and Bazaine. and at .Sedan he found himself surroimded by the enemy. ( See Fraxco-German War.) This resulted in another crushing defeat for the French (September 1st). MacMahon, who was wounded early in the en- gagement, was compelled to relinquish the com- mand. On the following day the army was obliged to surrender, together with the Emperor. In March, 1871. after the preliminaries of peace. Thiers called Mac^Iahon to the command of the Army of Versailles, to recover Paris from the Commune. This he accomplished toward the close of May. after a bloody struggle. After the establishment of peace Macilahon gave his hearty support to the Thiers Government, and after Thiers's resignation in ilay. 1873, MacMahon was elected President of France. He had been a soldier outside of politics, and was perhaps the one man in France whose patriotism and purity of motive were trusted by all parties; but his election was chiefly due to the monarchical ele- ments, who hoped to use him as a tool for the overthrow of the Republic. On November 19, 1873, his term of office was extended to 1880, this so-called 'Septennate' being aimed at delaying the permanent establishment of the Republic. Nevertheless the Republicans, under the leader- ship of Thiers and Gambetta, triumphed, and in 1875 the permanent organization of a republican form of government was effected. Charged with favoring Imperialists and seeking to continue in power, MacMahon declared that he should lend his aid to no scheme of monarchical restoration. The conflict with the Republicans continuing, the Chambers were dissolved and both parties went to the country on the issue of the maintenance of the personal authority of the President, whose plat- form was "defense of the Constitution and con- servatism." In 1876 MacMahon was compelled to place Jules Simon (q.v.), whose liberal policy was more in accord with the sentiment of the majority in the Chambers, at the head of the Ministry. In the following year, however, Simon was dismissed and an appeal taken to the coun- try. The action of MacMahon destroyed his popularity with the masses of the people, he was assailed by the press, and the preponderating state of opinion was expressed by Gambetta in his celebrated epigram, '"11 faudra se soumettre ou se demettre" ("Give in or get out"). In the new Chamber the Republicans had a majority of 120, and a deadlock ensued between the Ministry and the representatives. There were not want- ing those among MacMahon's advisers who urged a coup d'etat and the establishment of a dictator- ship, but the President was not prepared for such a step. In a message to the Chambers ( Decem- ber. 1877). he acknowledged that the sentiment of the country was in favor of the Republic, pledged himself to rule in accordance with the will of the representatives, and thereafter took little active share in the Government. He re- signed the Presidency on January 30, 1879. He died at his estate of La Forest near Montargis, October 17, 1893. Consult: Daudet, Le marMial de Macilahon (Paris, 1883), a brief sketch; id., Sourenirs de la presidence dti mnrrrhal de Mac- Mahon (Paris, 1880) : Stofl'el. La depeche du 20 Aout 1870 du marechal Bazaine ait, marfchal de MacMalwn (ib., 1874) : and for an exhaustive biography, Lafarge, Histoire compUte de Mac- Mahon, marechal de France, due de Magenta (ib,, 1898). McMAS'TEB, Gut Humphreys (1829-87). An American jurist and poet, born at Clyde, N. Y, He graduated at Hamilton College and studied for the bar. Meanwhile he had written Carmen Bellicosvm, his most popular poem, which first appeared in the Knickerbocker Maga- zine (1849), He was elected judge of Steuben County, N, Y,, in 1864, and .surrogate of the same county in 1884. He wrote A Ilistoni of iSteuben County (1849): his other poems in- clude: Dream of Thanksgiving Eve (1864) ; The Commanders (1887) ; and The Professor's Quest Chamber (1880). McMASTER, .John B.ch (1852—). An American historian, born in Brooklyn. N. Y. He graduated at the College of the City of New York in 1872, and after spending one year there
