Public School History of England and Canada/England/Chapter 23
CHAPTER XXIII.
PERSONAL INFLUENCE OF THE KING.
1. George III.—George III. began his reign with the resolve to allow the king’s ministers to rule no longer for the king, as was the custom in the days of George I. and II. His mother had early and constantly taught him to ‘‘Be a King;” and his tutor, Lord Bute, had strengthened the impressions his mother’s teachings had made on his naturally narrow mind and stubborn disposition. Few English kings were so unfit to rule as George III., and few did so much injury to England at home and abroad. Yet he came to the throne with many things in his favour. He had been born and educated in England, and so was the first English king who reigned since the Revolution of 1688. It pleased the people to have once more an Englishman on the throne, and it pleased the Scotch when he said he was not merely an Englishman, but was also a ‘‘Briton.” With these advantages on his side he was at first popular, and so he might have remained had he not used his position to recover the authority lost by his predecessors—George I. and George II. Instead of ruling by the advice of his ministers he sought to make them the mere instruments of his will. In spite of his many faults as a ruler the people respected him for his pure domestic life, and for his frugal and simple habits. Old ‘‘Farmer George” was always, even in the days when his stubbornness and ignorant self-will were injuring the nation, a king that many people loved and revered.
2. Growth of Industry.—The latter part of the 18th century was a time when Great Britain made great strides in wealth and population. This was due, mainly, to the invention of many labor-saving machines, such as the ‘‘spinning-jenny” and ‘‘mule,” for spinning yarn, by Hargreaves and Crompton, and the steam-engine by Watt. During this time it became known that pit-coal could be used to smelt iron ore, and this, taken with the discovery of the steam-engine, soon led to large iron-works being founded in the north of England. Goods could now be manufactured in great quantities; and the difficulty of taking them to market was overcome by improving the roads, and especially by building numerous canals. The first canal, from Worsley to Manchester, was proposed in 1758 by the Duke of Bridgewater, and was successfully completed by the great engineer Brindley, The population of the towns and cities now increased very rapidly, so that with more. people to feed, and heavy duties on wheat and other articles of food, bread became much dearer. This led to more land being tilled, and much that had hitherto been considered waste and worthless was now enclosed and made to give good crops. Between 1760 and 1774 numerous Enclosure Bills were passed by the British Parliament in favour of the large landowners, who had a great deal of power in Parliament. The fencing in of so much waste land was very hard on poor people, many of whom had been wont to use these commons for pasturing a horse or cow. Pauperism was fast becoming a great evil, and a burden on the working portion of the community.
3. Wilkes.—George III., as has been stated, was anxious to rule himself, through his ministers, and that was why he got rid of Pitt and Newcastle at the beginning of his reign, and made Lord Bute Prime Minister. It was the king’s policy to break down the power of the Whig nobles, for he knew that he could not have his own way so long as the great Whig families were kept in office. His plan was to form a party of his own, the ‘‘King’s friends,” neither Whig nor Tory, which would look to the king for guidance and support. In this he succeeded very well, for the Tories, who had long been out of office, and the Jacobites, who had given up all hope of restoring the Stuarts, were glad to be taken into the young king’s favour. Besides the Tories and Jacobites, he managed by means of bribes in the shape of money, titles, and offices, to win over many of the supporters of the Whigs. Nevertheless, it is doubtful if he could have carried out his policy, had not the Whigs been split into factions which made war upon each other. Their quarrels gave the king the chance he desired, and he soon became so powerful that he made and unmade governments at his pleasure.
Lord Bute, who succeeded Pitt and Newcastle, did not hold his position very long. He was a Scotchman, and a great favourite of the king’s mother, and these things made him hated by the people. Besides he had no experience in politics, and the people knew he was a mere puppet in the king’s hands. He became so thoroughly hated, that he had to keep a bodyguard of prize fighters about him when he walked through the streets of London. Frightened at last by the evidences on every side of popular hatred, he resigned, and George III. had again to take a Whig for his minister. This was George Grenville, a conscientious, hardworking man, who made himself disliked by both king and people by his narrowness and obstinacy. His first trouble was with a newspaper, the ‘‘North Briton,” which very violently attacked the king and his ministers. The editor of this paper was John Wilkes, a member of Parliament. He was a clever, witty, but profligate man, who by a strange fate had a great deal to do in bringing in some much-needed reforms. Grenville, acting under instructions from the king, issued a ‘‘general warrant,” that is a warrant in which the name of no person was given, for the arrest of the publishers and editors of the offending paper. Wilkes, along with several others, was arrested and put in prison; but by appealing to the courts, he got his release, and then proceeded against the Government for arresting a member of Parliament contrary to law. The courts decided in his favour, gave him damages, and condemned ‘‘general warrants” as illegal. Parliament now charged him with libel, and Wilkes seeing that he had little chance of fair play fled to France, and was outlawed for not standing his trial. Nevertheless, no more ‘‘general warrants” have been issued since his time.
4. Stamp Act, 1765.—And now Grenville’s meddlesome disposition led to a more serious difficulty than that with Wilkes. The English colonies in America had long felt that the Mother Country, by her trade policy, was injuring them for her own benefit. The colonies were not allowed to trade freely with other countries, but were expected to buy the manufactures they needed from England, and in return were given special privileges in the sale of their raw produce in England. The colonists had found it profitable to evade this law, and to carry on a trade with the Spanish colonies in America. This Grenville now tried to stop, and at the same time put a tax on the colonies to lessen the burden of the British taxpayers. The British Parliament said that much of the expense of the war in America was for the benefit of the colonies and, therefore, they should help to bear the burden. The tax was to be levied by making the colonists use stamped paper for notes, leases, and other legal documents. These stamps had to be bought from the British Government, which got a profit from their sale, although the money thus raised was spent in the colonies. The colonies were angry at this attempt to tax them without their own consent, and said that while they were willing to tax themselves for the good of the Mother Country, they were not willing that a Parliament in which they had no representatives should force them to pay taxes. They sent a petition against the ‘‘Stamp Act,” but at first their remonstrance met with no attention. They then refused to buy any English manufactures, and this caused the English merchants and manufacturers to ask for the repeal of the Act. Meanwhile Grenville had displeased George III., and had been forced to give way to Lord Rockingham, the leader of the other section of the Whigs. Rockingham, aided by Pitt, did away with the Stamp Act, but Parliament, while removing it, took the opportunity of asserting its right to tax the colonies at pleasure.
A short time after this there was another change in the Government, and Pitt, with the title of ‘‘Earl of Chatham,” came back as chief member of the Grafton Ministry. But ill-health forced him to leave the management of colonial affairs in other hands, and Parliament, in 1767, placed duties on tea, painters’ colours, glass, and a few other articles going into America. This aroused the colonies once more, who were now more than ever determined that they would not submit to arbitrary taxation, and began to take steps to defend their rights.
5. The Middlesex Elections.—The same obstinacy and love of power which caused George III. to drive his American subjects to revolt, led him to use his influence with the House of Commons to invade the rights of the electors of Middlesex. In 1769, Wilkes returned from France and was elected member for Middlesex, a county in which there were more electors than in most constituencies. George was angry, and through his Government had Wilkes arrested for his old offence, libel, and put in prison. The House of Commons was induced to expel him on account of the libel; but Wilkes was again elected by the people of Middlesex. Three times was Wilkes elected and expelled, and then the House of Commons declared Wilkes incapable of being elected, and persuaded Colonel Luttrell to oppose him in Middlesex. Wilkes received 1,143 votes and Luttrell only 296, nevertheless the Commons declared Luttrell elected. This high-handed and unjust act, by which the people were deprived of their right of election, caused great indignation, and when Wilkes came out of prison, the people of London showed their sympathy by electing him an alderman of the city.
6. Liberty of the Press.—The following year, 1771, Wilkes was engaged in another contest with Parliament, in the interest of the people. Although the press had now a right to publish without asking permission from any one, nevertheless it was against the rules to report the debates in Parliament. In spite of a “standing order” to the contrary, garbled reports were published, and at last, the Speaker of the Commons, ordered the arrest of a number of printers. Two of them appealed to the law, and Wilkes and another London alderman acting as magistrates, freed them as being guilty of no offence. The Speaker’s messenger was arrested for trying to carry out the will of the Commons, and so serious was the quarrel that the Mayor of London was sent to the Tower while the session lasted. Meanwhile the printers were left at liberty, and though no decision was reached as to the right to publish debates, the press has ever since been permitted to report Parliamentary proceedings. This led to better newspapers being published, and more interest in public affairs being taken, and it helped to put a stop to the practice of bribing members of Parliament. Wilkes was allowed to take his seat in 1774, and in 1782 the House of Commons admitted that it was wrong in seating Colonel Luttrell in 1769.
7. The American Colonies Win Their Independence.—In 1770, George III. succeeded in getting a Prime Minister to his
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taste. This was Lord North, an easy-going, good-natured Tory, who was quite content to take his orders from the king. Now that George was “king” as he wished to be, he resolved to make his American subjects feel his authority. In 1770, Lord North took off all the obnoxious taxes, except that on tea, and this George III. retained, for the purpose of asserting his right of taxation over the colonies. Meanwhile, the feeling in America was growing stronger every year, and the colonists resolved not to buy any tea until the tax was removed. This resolve was carried out, and the East India Company began to suffer. In 1773 some ship-loads of tea entered Boston harbour, and an effort was made to land the cargo. A number of colonists resolved to prevent this, and dressed as Indians went on board the ships and threw the chests of tea into the water. For this act of violence Parliament closed the port of Boston, took away from Massachusetts its charter, and demanded that the offenders should be sent to England for trial.
War was now near at hand. In 1774, all the colonies, except Georgia, sent delegates to Philadelphia, where a congress was held to decide on what action should be taken for the protection of their rights and liberties. They resolved to trade no more with England until the charter of Massachusetts was restored, and they made preparations for resistance, if such should be needful. In 1775, at Lexington, near Boston, the first encounter took place between the British troops and the farmers and mechanics of Massachusetts. The following month, a more serious encounter took place at Bunker's Hill, also near Boston, and there the American militia showed George III. that the Yankees could fight. In the meantime George Washington, of Virginia, had been chosen commander-in-chief of the American forces, and at once began to make such preparations as he could to meet the coming storm. No better choice could have been made. Calm, patient, devoted to his country, for eight years he bore the heavy burden of what at times seemed an almost hopeless struggle, and finally secured the independence of the colonies, an independence largely due to his unflinching courage and endurance, and to his power to cheer and animate his followers.
Early in the war the British troops were forced to leave Boston and retire to New York, where the feeling in favour of the Mother Country was strong. Canada was invaded in 1775 by American armies, under Generals Montgomery and Arnold, in the hope of inducing the people to rebel. Montreal was easily taken, but Quebec resisted all attacks, and Montgomery was killed in an assault upon its defences. The Americans shortly afterwards retreated, and Canada was troubled no more. The colonists now finally decided to separate from the Mother Country, and Thomas Jefferson, on behalf Congress, drew up a solemn “Declaration of Independence,” which was approved and accepted July 4th, 1776. Hitherto, the war had gone against the colonists, and a large British army under General Burgoyne, in 1777, marched from Canada down to the Hudson River, to cut off New England from the rest of the colonies. Great alarm was felt at this movement, and the American militia flocked in from all quarters to check Burgoyne's march. Soon Burgoyne found himself hemmed in, and to save his army from utter destruction, surrendered with six thousand men. This was the turning-point in the fortunes of the colonies. The next year, 1778, France came to the aid of the young Republic, and sent men, money, and a fleet, all of which were sorely needled. The war went on for several years after this with varying results. Washington had been defeated at Brandywine River, 1777, and forced to give up Philadelphia to the British, and British generals won many victories in the Southern States. Nothing but the heroic courage and patience of Washington saved the colonies at this time from yielding in despair. The war was carried on with extreme bitterness, arising from the employment by England of hired German soldiers and North American Indians. In 1781, the fortunes of war changed in favour of the Americans, until the crowning victory was won at Yorktown, where Lord Cornwallis, cut off from supplies by an American army and a French fleet, surrendered with several thousand men, After this the British people saw that all hope of keeping the colonies was gone. Britain was now at war with Spain, which, in 1779, joined France against her, and made a desperate effort to retake Gibraltar. The fortress was defended for three years by General Eliot, who drove the besiegers back by pouring red-hot shot into their fleet. Russia, Sweden, and Denmark were also hostile, having banded themselves together against Britain, to prevent her from searching their ships. So, when the news of the surrender of Cornwallis came to England, people began to despair. Lord North, now thoroughly unpopular, resigned in 1782, and was succeeded by Rockingham. Pitt had died in 1778, his last speech being a plea against giving up the colonies, and a defiance to his old enemy, France. Nothing now remained but to make the best terms possible with France, Spain, and the colonies. Fortunately, a great victory won by Admiral Rodney over the French fleet enabled Britain to conclude an honorable peace. By the Treaty of Versailles, in 1783, the independence of the United States was recognized, France gained nothing, while Spain had to be content with Minorca and Florida. To Britain there remained in America, Canada, Nova Scotia, and Newfoundland.
8. Home Rule in Ireland.—While England had her troubles abroad, she was not without them at home. In 1780, a great riot took place in London, because Parliament removed some of the harsh laws against Roman Catholics. Lord George Gordon was the leader of a mob of 60,000 men, who came to Parliament with a petition against the measure. Not content with presenting their petition, the excited people broke out into acts of violence, burning Roman Catholic chapels, and destroying public and private property. Finally 10,000 troops had to be called out to restore order in the city.
A much more serious trouble was the demand made by the Protestants in Ireland for the right to manage their own affairs by an Irish Parliament. While the war with the colonies was going on, all the troops in Ireland were taken to America, and as France threatened an invasion, a large Protestant volunteer force, 100,000 in number, was raised to defend the country. This was Ireland's opportunity, and the Protestant leaders in the Irish Parliament, of whom the chief was Henry Grattan, demanded that Ireland should have the right to control her own trade and commerce, and that Poyning's law, which gave the English Parliament the right to prevent Bills passed in the Irish Parliament from becoming law, should be repealed. Lord Rockingham had no choice but to submit, and so, in 1782, Ireland got "Home Rule". Nevertheless, only a very small portion of the people of Ireland governed her, as Roman Catholics and Dissenters could not be members of Parliament, and this gave all the power into the hands of a few Protestant families belonging to the English Church in Ireland.
9. Warren Hastings.—Though England had lost ground in America, she was extending her possessions in Asia and Australia. In the latter country a convict settlement was formed in 1788 at Sydney, in New South Wales. For many years none but convicts were sent out, but, as we shall find, these were the pioneers of what promises to be a great Anglo-Saxon nation. In India, Clive did much to bring about a better treatment of the natives, who were oppressed and robbed by English traders after the East India Company had gained so much control in the land. Clive returned to England and through his influence Warren Hastings, the Governor of Bengal, was made, in 1773, Governor-General of Bengal, Bombay, and Madras. When Hastings went to India he made great changes in the administration of affairs, iny spite of a very bitter opposition from some members of his own Council. He had to wage a war against the Mahrattas, the roving freebooters of Central India, and against Hyder Ali, a military adventurer who had desolated the Carnatic with fire and sword. In spite of all the difficulties which 'his Council, the native princes, and the French put in his way, Hastings held for England all she had won, and laid the foundations of her present great Indian Empire. He returned to England in 1784, expecting to be rewarded for his services, but instead was impeached before the House of Lords by the Commons, for his cruel and unjust treatment of the natives. He was charged with selling the services of his English troops to a native prince, who used them to conquer and enslave the Rohillas, an Afghan tribe. He was also accused of extorting money from native rulers, and for putting a native to death illegally. Hastings did not think he had done anything wrong, for he knew that the offences he was charged with had been committed in the interest of the East India Company. His trial lasted eight years, and ended in his acquittal in 1795, although the three greatest orators of his time, Burke, Fox, and Sheridan, were employed to press the charges against him. Although acquitted, the trial had the result of making the English in India more just and merciful to the natives, and led to the better government of the country.
10. The Coalition Government and Its Overthrow.— When Lord Rockingham died, Lord Shelburne became Prime Minister. Among the followers of Rockingham was Charles James Fox, an able orator and statesman, who for years had spoken strongly against Lord North's government. Fox was a very amiable, liberal-minded man; but he was very much given to gambling and other vices. King George hated him, because he was the boon companion of George, Prince of Wales, and the king blamed him for corrupting his son and heir. Fox quarrelled with Shelburne, and to drive him from office united with Lord North in what was called a Coalition, that is a union of people holding different opinions. The followers of Fox and North together were now more numerous than those of Shelburne, and they succeeded in turning him out of office. What is known in history as the “Coalition” government of Fox and North was now formed. It had a large following in Parliament, but people outside thought it was wrong that Tories and Whigs, who had been abusing each other so bitterly for so many years. should go into the same government. The king, too, was displeased, partly because he hated Fox, and partly because the ministry was too well supported. At first he could do nothing; but when Fox brought in a Bill for the better government of India, the king induced his friends in the Lords to throw it out, and then- made this an excuse for forcing his ministers to resign. He now called on William Pitt, a young man of twenty four years of age, to become Prime Minister. Pitt was the second son of William Pitt, the great Commoner, and although young in years was old in knowledge, ability, and self-confidence. In vain, Fox and North outvoted him in Parliament, and tried to force him to resign. The king gave him his influence and support, and when, a few months later, the king dissolved Parliament, and called upon the people to elect their representatives, it was found that the nation was so strongly with Pitt that few of the followers of Fox and North were able to keep their seats. Pitt was now Prime Minister with a large following in Parliament and in the country, and the king was content to let him rule. For seventeen years without a break, from December 1783 to February 1801, he remained in power, guiding and controlling the affairs of the nation as no man had done since the days of Walpole.