The Chinese Repository/Volume 1/Number 1/Mohammedans in China
REVIEW.
Approaching the city of Canton, the traveller sees rising before him, within the walls, two lofty pagodas; one of which he perceives, as he comes near to them, is quite different from the other, and from those which he saw when coming up the river. On inquiry concerning this singular one, he might be informed that, it is a Mohammedan mosque, built about a thousand years ago; that, at the present time, a community of several hundred souls, with books and teachers of that faith, live near the mosque; and that, some of the teachers are able to write the Arabic character with a tolerable degree of correctness. Still further he might be informed, by those who travelled from Peking to Canton in 1818, that, Mohammedans were found in every part of their journey, and frequently holding stations in the government.
These few facts would, perhaps, induce him to inquire again. At what time, and in what way, did the Mohammedans enter China? And, what records are there, that will give information on this subject? The account given by the two travellers is worthy of notice, not only in reference to these inquiries, but, because, it will serve to illustrate the character of the Chinese at an early period. The origin of this very ancient people, and their intercourse, in former times, with the nations of the West, are topics of great interest, about which we shall be glad to receive information.
During the early periods of the Christian era, while the fires of genius shone bright on the banks of the Nile and the Tiber, and the Ptolomies were collecting from the four quarters of the earth, many of the most splendid works of taste and erudition, the rays of science suddenly took a new direction, and Arabia was the place where they met. Although the career of "the Prophet and Apostle of God," the son of Ahdallah, seemed the harbinger of any thing but good to the progress of letters, yet the 8th and 9th centuries formed a bright period in the history of Arabia. It was by the inspiration of this bold impostor, and by the immediate command of his successor, that the impious incendiary applied the torch to the invaluable library of Alexandria, that rich deposit of whatever the wisest and best of the ancient world had been accumulating for ages. At the commencement of the 8th century, when the empire of the Caliphs was of immense extent, stretching from the confines of India to the Atlantic, Bagdad became the rallying point for men of enterprise, both commercial and literary. On the banks of the Tigris the power of the Caliphat did much to foster genius; and schools and libraries were established; and thither men of letters were invited to come from all people and nations, and to bring with them every work of science and literature they could command. Philosophy, astronomy, and the healing art received particular attention. Under the patronage of the Abassides the fine arts flourished extensively, and geography was by no means neglected. It is not wonderful, that in such circumstances, enterprising Mussulmen should have obtained some knowledge of the people inhabiting the eastern borders of their own continent. Our wonder is that so little information was obtained, or rather, that so little has been preserved; for we still hope, thouh it be against hope, that something "may yet be discovered in Western Asia, or in Egypt, to throw light on the early history of the Chinese.
Marco Polo, the Venetian traveller, whose work, we purpose to notice at another time, returned from his travels in the East, near the the close of the 13th century. The Portuguese first doubled the Cape of Good Hope, A. D. 1497. "But," says Renaudot, in his preface, "we may be satisfied that our two authors are more ancient, and that the two dates they give, the one of the year 237 of the Hejra, which is that of the first traveller, and the other of the year of the same 264, when a great revolution happened in China, are true and just."
Commencing the Mohammedan era, A. D. 613, as both the second traveller and his translator have done, the two dates will correspond with the years of Christ 850 and 877. Renaudot's preface is rather long, but, like the notes and dissertations, which he has added to the work by way of appendix, it contains much valuable matter, elucidating the text. He made his translation about the commencement of the last century. He was a learned and accurate scholar, and possessed an extensive acquaintance with the orientals, and their literature, for which reason we shall be willing the oftener to quote his opinions. The best proof, however, of the correctness of the "ancient account," is its internal evidence; of this the reader shall be his own judge. The second traveller commences with the following prefatory remarks.
"I have carefully examined the book I have been ordered to peruse," (the book written by the first traveller, which forms the first and principal part of the whole work,) "that I might confirm what the author relates, where he agrees with what I have heard, concerning the things of the sea, the kingdoms on the coasts, and the state of the countries; and that I might also add, upon this head, what I have elsewhere gathered concerning them, and is not to be found in this book.
"I find it was written in the year of the Hejra 237, and that the accounts the author gives touching the things of the sea were, in his time, very true and agreeable to what I have understood from merchants who depart from Irak, to sail upon those seas. I find also that all the author writes is agreeable to truth, except some passages."
In the manuscript of the first traveller, says the translator, there is a leaf or more wanting where the author begins to treat of China. The first extract, which we make from this part of the work, seems to refer to this city, which he calls Canfu, i.e. Kwang-chow-foo, or as it is now written by Europeans, Canton.
"Canfu is the port of all the ships and goods of the Arabs, who trade in China; but fires are there very frequent, because the houses are built with nothing but wood, or else with split cane (bamboo;) besides, the merchants and ships are often lost in going and coming; or they are often plundered; or obliged to make too long a stay in harbour; or to sell their goods out of the country subject to the Arabs, and there make up their cargo. In short, ships are under a necessity of w-aiting a considerable time in refitting, not to speak of many other causes of delay."
Fires are frequent in Canton at the present time; that which swept away the western suburbs of the city, with the Foreign Fretories, early in November 1822, was an extensive one. But the introduction of fire-engines, and a strict and constant watch, with other precautions, usually prevent them from being very destructive; and commerce is, probably, as unlikely to be affected by fires in Canton, as in any other mart in the world. The second traveller, alluding to the "causes of delay," says, 'since much is related to show the reason why the voyages to China are interrupted, and how the country has been ruined, many customs abolished, and the Empire divided, I will here declare what I know of the causes of this revolution.' After briefly noticing its commencement, and the leader of the rebellion which occasioned it, he adds,
"His hands thus strengthened, and himself in a condition to undertake any thing, he betrayed his design of subduing the Empire to himself, and strait marched to Canfu, one of most noted cities in China, and, at that time the port of all the Arabian merchants. This city stands upon a great river, some days distant from the entrance, so that the water here is fresh; but the citizens shutting their gates against him, lie resolved to besiege the place, and the siege lasted a great while. This was transacted in the year of the Hejra 264, and of Christ 877. At last he became master of the city, and put all the inhabitants to the sword. There are persons fully acquainted with the affaire of China, who assure us, that besides the Chinese, who were massacred upon this occasion, there perished one hundred and twenty thousand Mohammedans, Jews, Christians, and Parsees, who were there on account of traffic. The number of the professors of these four religions, who thus perished, is exactly known; because the Chinese are extremely nice in the account they keep of them. He also cut down the mulberry trees, and almost all the trees of other kinds; but we speak of the mulberry in particular, because the Chinese carefully cultivate it for the sake of its leaf, wherewith they subsist and propagate their silk-worms. This devastation is the cause why silk has failed, and that the trade which used to be driven with if, in the countries under the Arabs, is quite stagnated.
"From these combustions there arose many unjust dealings with the merchants who traded thither, which having gathered the force of a precedent, there was no grievance, no treatment, so bad but they exercised upon the foreign Arabs, and the masters of ships. They seized upon their effects, and behaved towards them in a method of procedure quite contrary to the ancient usages. And for these things has God punished them by withdrawing his blessings from upon them in every respect, and particularly by causing the navigation to be forsaken, and the merchants to return in crowds to Siraf and Oman, pursuant to the infallible orders of the Almighty Master, whose name be blessed."
If what is here said of the "thousands" put to the sword, and of the "crowds" returning, be true, it proves that the intercourse between eastern and western Asia was, at that period, of a most interesting character, and of vast extent. The period referred to, is that of the Emperor He-tsung of the Tang dynasty. It is briefly noticed in Du Halde's history; and an extended account of it, noticing the principal leaders of the rebels, places taken, and so forth, may be found in the 59th Section of Kang-keen-e-che, the 20th volume.
Neither of the two travellers tell us at what time their countrymen first came hither. In Morrison's view of China, it is stated that, "In the time of Hwan-te, whose reign closed A. D. 167, India, Ta-tsin (Egypt or Arabia), and other nations, came by the Southern or Chinese sea with tribute, and from this, trade with foreigners was carried on at Canton." It is farther stated in the same work, that the Ta-tsin was situated on the west of the western ocean, very remote; and that, "the people were tall, and well formed, of the same race with the Chinese, and therefore called Ta-tsin. There is a most splendid account of the country, and it is added, when Matthew Ricci came to Peking, he affirmed that Jesus was born in Judea, which was the Ancient Ta-tsin."...."Does not this favour the late De Guignes' supposition, that the Chinese were originally a Colony from Egypt?"
The first Tsin dynasty of China closed about two centuries before the Christian era. We are not prepared to hazard an opinion, concerning the origin of the Chinese, or the time when the people of western Asia or Egypt first came to China. If we credit the writers, whose account we review, it appears that, before their day, the number of foreigners and the privileges they enjoyed in China, were far from being inconsiderable. The first writer says,
"Soliman the merchant relates, that at Canfu, which is the principal scale for merchants, there is a Mohammedan appointed judge over those of his religion, by the authority of the Emperor of China; and that he is judge of all the Mohammedans, who resort to those parts. Upon festival days he performs the public services with the Mohammedans, and pronounces the sermon or kotbat, which he concludes, in the usual form, with prayers for the Soltan of the Moslems. The merchants of Irak who trade hither, are no ways dissatisfied with his conduct, or his administration in the post he is invested with; because his actions, and the judgments he gives, are just and equitable, and conformable to the Koran, and according to the Mohammedan jurisprudence."
The same writer remarks, in another part of his work, that 'he knows not that there is any one of the Chinese who has embraced Mohammedanism or speaks Arabic.' One of the Mohammedans of Canton, whom we recently met, assured us that, the ancestors of his clan came to Canton in the time of Tih-tsung, whose reign closed A. D. 805; and that they take no pains to propagate their religion, believing that man is formed by fate, to live and die in the same faith in which he was born. Concerning the course to China, Renaudot remarks,
"It is very difficult exactly to trace out the course the Arabs steered for China, as it is found in our authors; not only because many towns they mention have been destroyed, but also because the ancients, who coasted it along, held a different course from that now shaped by our pilots. The Chinese came as far as Siraf, but dared not stir beyond it, because of the foulness of the weather, and the heaviness of the sea, which their ships could not live in. They did not then venture so far as Madagascar, as Father Martini pretends they did, because in the bay of Santa Clara there is a people resembling the, Chinese, and not unlike them in speech. He offers nothing in proof of this but the report of some seamen; but granting the thing to be as he would have it, these Chinese may have been driven thither by tempest, and there have taken up their abode, because they could not possibly return back again to their country. On the other hand, it is evident that Navarette is mistaken when he says, the Straits of Singapore were their ne plus ultra."
At the present time, no Arabian Ships, as such, come to China; nor do any Chinese ships reach Calcutta, though they are frequently seen, and in considerable numbers, at Penang, Bankok, and in many of the ports of the Eastern Archipelago. The following is an abridged account of the course to Cliina, as given by the first traveller.
'As for the places whence ships depart, and those also they touch at, many persons declare that, the navigation is performed in the following order. Most of the Chinese ships take in their cargo at Siraf, where also they ship their goods which come from Bassora, and other ports; and this they do, because in this sea, there are frequent storms, and shoal water in many places. When ships have loaded at Siraf, they there water also; and from thence make sail for a place called Maskat, which is in the extremity of the province of Oman, about 200 leagues from Siraf. From Maskat ships take their departure for the Indies: and first they touch at Kaucammali; and from Maskat to this place, is a month's sail with the wind aft. Kaucammali is a frontier place, and the chief arsenal in the proyince of the same name; and here the Chinese ships put in and are in safety. Having watered at this last place, they begin to enter the sea of Harkand; and having sailed through it, they touch at a place called Lajabalus, where the inhabitants understand not the Arabesque, or any other language in use with merchants. From this place ships steer towards Calabar, the name of a place and a kingdom on the coast, to the right hand beyond India. In ten days after this, ships reach a place called Betuma, where they may water. It is worth the notice, that in all the islands and peninsulas of the Indies, they find water when they dig for it. '
'In ten days from the last mentioned place, they arrive at Senef, here is fresh water, and hence comes the aromatic wood. Having watered at this place, it is ten days passage to Sandarfulat, an island where is fresh water. Then they steer upon the sea of Sanji, and so to the Gates of China; for so they call certain rocks and shoals in the sea, between which is a narrow strait, through which ships pass. It requires a month to sail from Sandarfulat to China, and it takes up eight whole days to steer clear of these rocks. When a ship has got through these Gates, she, with a tide of flood, goes into a fresh water gulph, and drops anchor in the chief port of China, which is that of Canfu; and here they have fresh water, both from springs and rivers, as they have also in most of the other ports of China.
It does not appear, from any thing related by either of the travellers, whether these voyages were made with or without the compass. The origin of this instrument in China, may come under consideration at another time; we can now only remark in passing, that the Chinese, at the present time, 'coast it along' after the same old custom, seldom, if ever, intentionally, going out of sight of land, though always furnished with the compass. Of the situation of foreign residents in China, the first traveller says;
"When merchants enter China by sea, the Chinese seize on their cargo, and convey it to ware-houses; and so put a stop to their business for six months, till the last Merchantman be arrived. Then they take three in ten, or thirty per cent, of each commodity, and return the rest to the merchant. If the Emperor wants any particular thing, his officers have a right to take it preferably to any other person whatsoever; and paying for it to the utmost penny it is valued at, they despatch this business immediately, and without the least injustice.
"If a man would travel from one place to another, he must take two passes with him, the one from the governor, the other from the eunuch or lieutenant. The governor's pass permits him to set out on his journey, and takes notice of the name of the traveller, and those also of his company, the age and family of the one and the other; for every body in China, whether a native, or an Arab, or any other foreigner, is obliged to declare all he knows of himself, nor can he possibly be excused the so doing. The eunuch's or lieutenant's pass specifies the quantities of money, or goods, which the traveller and those wiht him, take along with them. And this is done for the information of the frontier places, where these two passes are examined: for whenever a traveller arrives at any of them, it is registered , that such a one, the son of such a one, of such a family, passed through this place, on such a day, in such a month, in such a year, and in such company.' And by these means they prevent any one from carrying off the money or effects of other persons, or their being lost; so that if any thing has been carried off unjustly, or the traveller dies on the road, they immediately know what has become of the things, and they are either restored to the claimant, or to the heirs."
Since the period referred to, a great change has been effected; to notice briefly, but correctly, the progress of which, with its causes and effects, would constitute an interesting discussion. The change in commercial transactions has, perhaps, to all parties, been a favourable one, and it might be made far more advantageous. But in personal privileges,—liberty, with just regulations and securities to all and for all, to tread thtliroughe earth, and breathe the air,—the change has been injurious alike to all: it has, we think, involved, and -I'estricted the inalienable rights of man. That all this is attributable to one party, we by no means aver. But we dismiss this, and pass on to notice other topics. Of the Emperor, taxes, public treasury, and revenues, the first traveller writes,
"The Emperor of China, never appears in public, but once in ten months; saying, that if he showed himself oftener to the people, they would lose the veneration they have for him. For he holds it as a maxim, that principalities cannot subsist but by force, and that the people know not what justice is; and that constraint and violence must be used to maintain, among them, the Majesty of Empire.
"They have no impost upon their lands, but are subject only to a poll tax, which is levied on men only, and that according to their condition and capacity. When any Arabs, or other strangers are in this country, the Chinese tax them in proportion to their substance. When any dearth makes necessaries very dear, then does the king open his storehouses, and sell all sorts of provisions much cheaper than they are to be had at market; and hence no dearth is of any long continuance among the Chinese.
"The sums that are gathered from the capitation tax, are laid up in the public treasury; and, I believe, that, from this tax, fifty thousand dinars are every day paid into the treasury of Canfu alone, although this city be none of the largest in China.
"The Emperor also reserves to himself the revenues which arise from the salt mines, and from a certain herb which they drink with hot water, and of which great quantities are sold in all the cities, to the amount of great sums. They call it sah, and it is a shrub more bushy than the pomegranate-tree, and of a more taking smelt, but it has a kind of bitterness with it. Their way is to boil water, which they pour upon this leaf, and this drink cures all sorts of diseases. Whatever sums are lodged in the treasury arise from the poll tax, and the duties upon salt, and upon this leaf."
The maxim is still held, that the people know not what justice is, and that constraint and violence must uphold the majesty of Empire. There is now an impost on lands, but the poll tax has been interdicted. No taxes are levied on foreigners, except by way of customs and duties on their merchandise. Store-houses or granaries are managed quite as in the Arab's day. The public revenues are made up from imposts on lands, duties on salt, tea, silk, and so forth.
Much of the business between ruler and subject, is transacted in writing, by petition on the one side, and edict on the other. If a comparison were instituted, it would doubtless appear, that there has been, in modern times, a sad falling off in the administration of justice. Some of the severer punishments, however, have gone into disuse; others are retained. The first traveller says,
"The Chinese administer justice, with great strictness in all their tribunals. When any person enters his action against another, he sets down his claim in writing, and the defendant writes down his defence, which he signs, and holds between his fingers. These two writings are delivered in together, and being examined, sentence is pronounced in writing, and the parties have each his paper returned to him; but first they give back to the defendant his writing of defence, that he may acknowledge it. When one party denies what the other affirms, he is ordered to return his writing; and if the defendant thinks he may do it safely, and accordingly delivers in his paper again, they also call for that of the plaintiff, and then they say to him who denies what the other seems to have reason to maintain, 'Exhibit a writing whereby to make it appear that your antagonist has no right to demand of you what is in debate; but if it clearly betrays the truth of what you deny, you shall undergo twenty strokes of the bamboo, and pay a fine.'
"No one is raised to the dignity of a prince or governor of a city, till he hath obtained his fortieth year, 'for then,' say they, 'he hath experience.' When one of these princes, or petty kings, keeps his court in a city, he is seated upon a tribunal, and receives the petitions or complaints of the people. Behind his tribunal, is an officer called Lieu, who keeps standing, and, according to the order he receives from the prince, commits his answer to writing; for they never answer by word of mouth to any business whatsoever, nor will they give any answer at all to any thing that is not written. Before the parties present their petition to the prince, they get them examined by an officer, who, if he discovers any fault, sends them back again; for no man may draw up these writings which are to be presented to the prince, except a clerk versed in business; and at the bottom of each writing they put, " written by such a one, the son of such a one;" and if, in this ease, there happen any blunder or mistake, the clerk is bamboo'd. The prince never seats himself on his tribunal, till he has eaten and drank, for fear he should be mistaken in something; and each of these princes or governors has his subsistence from the public treasury of the city he commands." "When any one of the princes or governors of cities, within the dominions of the Emperor of China, is guilty of a crime, he is put to death, and eaten; and in general it may be said, that the Chinese eat all those that are put to death."
"One of the things (quoting the second traveller) most worthy to be admired in China, before the late commotions, was the good order they observed in the administration of justice, and the majesty of their tribunals. To fill them they made choice of such men as were perfectly versed in their laws, and such, consequently, as were never at a stand when they were to pass a judgment; men of sincerity, zealous in the cause of justice upon every occasion, nor to be biased by what the great could offer to embroil a dispute; so that justice was always administered to him who had right on his side. In a word, they made choice of upright men, who equally abstained from the slender substance of the poor, and from the presents of those who would have bribed them therewith."
This account will by no means hold true when applied to the present times. What is said about 'eating' criminals must be excepted. Some limitation, also, must be made, as to 'justice always being given to him who has right on his side.' Persons are eligible to office now at a much earlier age than in ancient times. In describing the kingdoms of the coast, the first traveller mentions the country of Mabed, as conterminous with China, at peace with the Emperor, but not subject to him. The short paragraph which we quote, touches a point of some interest.
"The Mabed send every year Ambassadors and presents to the Emperor of China, who on his part sends Ambassadors and presents to them. Their country is of great extent; and when the Ambassadors of the Mabed enter China, they are carefully watched, and never once allowed to survey the country, for fear they should form designs of conquering it, which would be no difficult task for them; because of their great numbers, and because they are parted from China, only by mountains, or by rocks."
The country of China is described as 'pleasant and fruitful;' the cities are 'many in number, great in extent, and well fortified.' 'The rivers are large;' 'much rainfalls;' and the country peopled throughout its whole extent. 'The climate is more wholesome than that of India; the air is also much better, and scarce is their a one-eyed, or blind person to be seen.' This last remark does not hold true now; blind persons are numerous, especially in the southern provinces. Many of the productions of the soil are enumerated; among others, the grape, of which 'they have not many.'
We have recently seen it stated, and on good authority, that 'the vine is not indigenous in China; the seeds were brought hither by the celebrated general Chang-keang, who had been despatched, B. C. 126, to the countries in the West. He traversed the modern Afghanistan, and the north-Western portion of India, and returned to China after an absence of 13 years. The term poo-taou (vine) is not of Chiriese origin, any more than the thing which it denotes; it is, probably, merely the imperfect transcription of the Greek term for vine. The Japanese pronounce it Boo-do.'
The two travellers give a pretty good account of the "copper money," and "an excellent kind of earth" (porcelain). Now, as then, the Chinese have no coin, but the copper cash, about 800 of which are equal to a Spanish dollar. They have 'horses, asses, and dromedaries; but they have no Arabian horses; they have no Elephants, and cannot endure to have them in the country.' Of the persons of the Chinese the first traveller, remarks,
"They are for the most part handsome, of comely stature, fair, and by no means addicted to excess of wine; their hair is blacker than the hair of any other nation in the world; and the Chinese women curl their's. The Chinese are more handsome than the Indians, and come nearer to the Arabs, not only in countenance, but in their dress, in their way of riding, in their manners, and in their processional ceremonies. They wear long garments, and girdles in form of belts.
"The Chinese are dressed in silk, both in summer and winter; and this kind of dress is common to the prince, the soldier, and to every other person, though of the lowest degree. In the winter they wear drawers, of a particular make, which fall down to their feet. Of these they put on two, three, four, five, or more, if they can, one over another; ami are very careful to be covered quite down to their feet, because of the damps, which are great, and much dreaded by them. In summer they only wear a single garment of silk, or some such dress, but have no turbans.
"Their common food is rice, which they often eat with a broth like what the Arabs make of meat, or fish, which they pour upon their rice. Their kings eat wheaten bread, and all sorts of animals, not excepting swine, and some others. Their drink is a kind of wine made of rice; they have no other kind in the country, nor is there any brought to them; they know not what it is, nor do they drink of it. They have vinegar also, and a kind of comfit like what the Arabs call natef, and some others.
"There are schools in every town for teaching the poor and their children to write and read, and the masters are paid at the public charge. The Chinese have no sciences, and their religion and most of their laws are derived from the Indians; nay, they are of opinion, that the Indians taught them the worship of idols, and consider them as a very religious nation. Both the one and the other believe the metempsychosis, but they differ in many points touching the precepts of their religion.
"The Chinese have some skill in medicine; but it almost wholly consists in the art of applying hot irons, or cautaries. They have also some smattering of astronomy; but therein the Indians surpass them.
"When the Chinese are about to marry, both parties come to an agreement, then presents are made, and at last the marriage is celebrated with the sound of many sorts of instruments and drums." "They observe the degree of consanguinity," adds the second traveller, "after this manner. They are divided among themselves, into families and tribes, like the Arabs, and some other nations; and they know each other by the difference of their descents. No one marries in his own tribe.
"The Chinese and Indians are not satisfied with one wife; but both the one and the other many as many as they please.
"The Chinese are fond of gaming and all manner of diversions. They worship idols, pray to them, and fall down before them; and they have books which explain the articles of their religion."
Every reader of these copious extracts, will see at once, a striking resemblance between the Chinese of the 9th and 19th centuries. Differences exist, some of which we have noticed, and others may come under review hereafter. Such permanence of national character, such inflexibility of manners and customs, are rarely found, and never exist without their peculiar causes; to observe which, in this case, and trace them to their results, opens a wide field for the philosopher, anti the political economist. Who will enter it?
(to be concluded in the next number.)