The Tamils Eighteen Hundred Years Ago/Chapter 13

by Visvanatha Kanakasabhai Pillai

CHAPTER 

Tamil Poems and Poets.

Another poetical work of this period which deserves special mention is the Kalith-thokai.^[1] It consists of 150 love songs composed in the Kali metre, said to have been collected by Nallanthuvanar, a Professor of Tamil in the city of Madura. The names of the authors of these songs have not been recorded, but judging from the varying style of the verses, and the different scenes described in them, it appears most probable that all of them are not the production of one and the same author. The songs are mostly in the form of a dialogue, the speakers being chiefly a lady, her servant maid, and her lover. They are remarkable for a refined sentiment of chaste and chivalrous love which runs through most of them, so different from the gross sensuality which pervades the amatory poems composed in Tamil in later periods. The love scenes described in them depict most vividly the social relations between the sexes, and the mode of courtship and marriage peculiar to the Tamils. Some of the scenes areas follow :—A youth going out a-hunting, meets a maiden who is seated on a swing in a shady grove, or bathing in a stream, or mounted on a loft in a cornfield and engaged in scaring away the birds which come to steal the corn, and struck with her beauty he visits the place frequently on pretence of following game. If he finds favor in the lady’s eyes, she allows him to visit her at her house, to take long walks with her, to accompany her to the river and even to assist her in her toilet,^[2] and finally he marries her. If however the lady is very coy and does not encourage his suit, he speaks to the lady’s maid, praises her mistress' exceeding beauty and beseeches her aid to procure a meeting. The maid gently broaches the subject to her mistress.^[3] She tells her with pride of the noble look of the youthful and handsome stranger who is smitten by her charms. The lovers meet in a grove outside the village in which she resides, at first during the day; but later on they have stolen interviews at night.^[4] The lover proposes to the father of the lady to marry his daughter, and obtains his consent, or he informs the lady that they must separate at least for a time, as he has to go on a distant journey. The lady’s maid tries to persuade him to stay: she warns him of the dangers of the road which is infested by wild beasts and robbers more cruel than wild animals. She asks him to remember that youth is fleeting: that it returns to no man: and that it is the season for enjoying the pleasures of life. She relates to him how sorry her mistress is if he absents himself from the trysting place even a single day, and expresses the fear that she may die of grief if her lover deserts her. If he is still determined to go, the lady entreats him to take her with him: but he pleads that timid and delicate as she is, she cannot undertake a long and difficult journey. She replies that, even in the forest, the hind follows the stag. “I shall neither eat nor drink, but ever thinking of thee, I shall die,” says she, “my heart is now a captive in thy bosom: keep it and let it not return to me lest it cause me grief”^[5] He is silenced, and the lady elopes with her lover. The mother of the young lady going in search of her, enquires of the pilgrims whom she meets, whether they had seen a girl following a young man on the road. The pilgrims console her with the advice that her daughter had not acted improperly in having eloped with the youth who loved her. “Of what use is the pearl” they say, “to the sea in which it was born? Of what use is the sandal to the mountain on which it grew? Of what use is the coral to the reef on which it was formed? They are useful only to those who would wear them. Even so, has thy daughter gone with the young man of her choice.” After some days’ absence, the daughter returns to her mother’s house accompanied by her lover, and the youthful couple are married with the usual rites. If the lover hastily departs on a long journey in the service of the king, the lady is distracted. She gives up the society of her friends. She laughs and weeps by turns. She fancies that her sorrow is shared even by the inanimate objects around her: the sea moans, the sand hills shiver: the leaves on the trees droop, and she feels like a ship-wrecked sailor at sea, who sees no means of escape.^[6] She sees the Ilavu put forth its crimson flowers, and the Kongu its flowers of gold, and all the trees on the river banks in blossom: the honey bees hum and fit about busily from flower to flower: the cuckoo warbles: and all nature is gay: but her heart is sad as her lover is still absent.^[7] She dreams that her lover had returned to her and that, touched by her sad look, he knelt at her feet and prayed to be forgiven: that she playfully struck him with her flower garlands; and that he begged with trembling accents to know what offence he had committed. She is therefore cheerful on the next morning; hoping that she should soon meet her lover.^[8] Her maid recalls to her mind the noble qualities of her lover and assures her that he will not forsake her.^[9]

I have given a brief summary of four of the larger poems of this period, viz., Muppal, Chilapp-athikaram, Mani-mêkalai, and Kalith-thokai. The smaller poems may be conveniently mentioned under the names of their authors, which I shall give in the order of their date.

Kaliaih-thalai (A.D. 30—60) was a war bard attached to the court of the Chera king. He was present in the battle in which both the contending kings Cheral-Athan and the Chola Killi fell mortally wounded. Subsequently he was present in the battle of Vennil in which another Cheral-Athan was defeated by Karikal Chola. The poet Kapilar speaks of him as an older poet and states that the town of Araiyam, the capital of Irunko Vèl, was destroyed as that prince did not honor Kalath-thalai. Six stanzas composed by this bard are preserved in the Purananuru.^[10]

Uriththirank-kannanar (A.D. 40—70) was the author of two poems, Perumpanarrup-padai and Padinappalai. The former was composed about A.D. 50, when Thirayan, King of Kanchi, was in possession of the Chola Kingdom. Though professedly a panegyric on king Thirayan it partakes more of the nature of a pastoral poem, and describes the various scenes in the territory of that king, such as the long lines of bullock carts in which salt dealers travel with their families: caravans of asses carrying sacks of pepper: the toll-gates guarded by soldiers: the villages inhabited by hunters, shepherds and farmers: the seaports which were crowded with ships and the capital city of Kanchi. The latter poem appears to have been written about the year A.D. 70, when Karikal Chola was settled on his throne and was already the father of several children. The poem is in praise of Kavirp-paddinam, the capital city of Kârikal Chola. It describes at length the fertile region watered by the Kaviri: the fields and groves around the city: the sea-port and its spacious wharfs: the market place and its wide avenues: the fortifications of the city and the prowess and victories of the King Tiru-mâvalavan alias Kârikal Chola.

Mudath-thâmak-Kanniyar (A.D. 60-90) composed the poem Porunar-ârrup-padai in praise of Kârikal Chola. He alludes to the escape of Kârikal from prison while young: his victory at the battle of Vennil: his subsequent career as a king and warrior: and his courteous and generous treatment of the bards and minstrels who visit his Court.

Kapilar (A.D. 90-130) was a Brahmin by birth and a poet by profession. He resided for some time at the Court of the Chera King Athan, who married the daughter of Kârikal Chola: and the king was so pleased with him that he bestowed on the poet several villages as a free gift.^[11] Attracted by the fame of Pâri who was noted for his liberality to poets, he visited that chieftain and was soon installed as his favorite bard and boon companion. Being a perfect master in the art of flattery he was a general favorite wherever he went. The verses which he has left in praise of his patrons, show that he had a wonderful facility of expression and subtlety of thought which enabled him to compose felicitous verses extolling the bravery and generosity of his patrons, apparently with perfect truth, but in fact, in a highly exaggerated strain. After the death of Pâri, he took his daughters to be married to Vichchik-kon and Irunko-vel; but not succeeding in his mission, he bestowed the girls on Brahmins, and starved himself to death unwilling to survive his generous patron Pari.^[12] His poem Perunk-Kurinchi narrates a story of love among the hill tribes in Tamilakam: and is said to have been composed for the instruction of an Aryan King Prahasta. Another poem composed by him entitled Innanârpatu is a didactic poem consisting of 40 stanzas treating of four unpleasant things in each stanza. Three of the stanzas are translated below as a specimen of the work :–

“Bitter is (life) to those who do not worship the feet of the three-eyed god (Siva). Bitter is it not to pray to the fair god (Baladeva) whose flag bears the device in gold of a palmyra palm. Bitter is it to forget the god (Vishnu) who wields the Chakra. Even so is (life) bitter to those who do not adore the god who is armed with the lance (Muruga)—(Stanza I.)

“Bitter is it to witness the distress of a friend. Bitter is it to see the pride of a foe. Bitter is it to reside in a town which is not fortified. Even so is it bitter to gamble with the dice.—(Stanza 26.)

“Bitter is the folly of lusting after another’s wife. Bitter is the bearing of a cowardly king on the battle-field. Bitter is it to ride a fiery steed without a saddles Even so bitter is the work undertaken by a slothful man.—(Stanza 39.)”

One hundred verses composed by him form part of the Ainkkuru-nuru: and ten of his verses in praise of the king CheralAthan are included in the Pathirrup-pattu. He was present at the convocation of poets at the court of Ugra Pandya at Madura when Tiruvalluvar first recited his Muppâl, and warmly approved of the work. He visited the Malayamân Kâri at Mulloor.^[13] In company with the poets Paranar, Arisil-Kilâr and Perunkkunrur-kilâr, he paid a visit also to Nalli and Pekan, the chief of the Aviyar, who were famous in his time as patron of poets.^[14] As specimens of his eulogistic verses I give below two of the stanzas composed by him in praise of his patrons Pâri and the Chera King Athan.

“Most generous Pâri! Lord of the land of mountains, where jack-fruits as large as drums, torn open by monkeys, serve as food for hunters of the Kurava tribe! Thou wert really no friend of mine, but an enemy, during the many years that thou supported me, for, out of my intense love of thee, I would have gladly died with thee: but thou prevented it; and having survived thee, I feel I have not been faithful to thee. Yet, I pray that in the next world, I may enjoy thy friendship for ever, as I did in this world.”^[15]

“Thou wouldst obey none but Brahmins. Distinguished for dauntless bravery, thou fearest nothing but to offend thy friends. Thy perfumed breast on which the bow ever rests, throbs before none but beautiful women. Thou wouldst not be false to thy promise even if the earth should change its position. Swift and terrible as the thunderbolt which shakes hillocks to their base, thou hast with thy valiant Tamil soldiers, routed the armies of thy two rival kings, and won thy laurels as a warrior: and now thou hast added to thy triumphs by conquering my poverty. Thou, Chelvak-ko! scion of the Cheralas! If good deeds are rewarded on this earth which is surrounded by the mighty ocean, Thou, Athan! wilt prosper for countless thousands of years! and be blessed in all thy undertakings !”^[16]

An elegant versifier, an amiable companion, and a consummate courtier, he was beloved alike by his patrons and brother poets. No poet of this ancient period, except Tiruvalluvar, appears to have been so popular as Kapilar, if we are to judge by the many complimentary allusions to him in the verses of contemporary authors. Nakkirar speaks of him as “the eloquent and famous Kapilan who is praised by many throughout the world.”^[17] Poruntil-ilankkiranar refers to him as “the learned and famous Kapilan, whose elegant verses are full of deep meaning”: and Marokattu-Nappasalaiyar alludes to him as “the pure minded Brahmin who has sung thy praises so fully that other minstrels have nothing new to say,’ while addressing Kari, the Malayaman.^{[18] [19]}

Nakkirar (A.D. 100—130) was the son of a schoolmaster of Madura. He alludes in his poems to the Chola kings Karikâl and Killi-valavan, the Pandyan king Nedun-cheliyan and the Chera king Vana-varmman alias Athan. Only two of his poems are now extant, viz. Tiru-murugaruppadai and Nedu-nal-vadai. In the former he praises Muruga, the god of war who had six faces and twelve arms, and who was worshipped at ParankKunru, Alaivai, Avinan-kudi, Erakam, and Palam-utir-cholai. In the latter poem the long winter night at Madura is described. The chill north wind blows through the groves of areca-palms. and down the broad streets of Madura Windows and doors are bolted and closed to keep out the cold air, and fires are lit in bed rooms. In the Pandya’s palace, the queen lies sleepless on her couch thinking of her lord who had gone with his army to fight with neighbouring king, and tears fill her eyes and trickle down her cheeks: while the Pandyan king encamped on hostile ground is also awake. He is not however thinking of his queen: but is busy visiting the wounded and issuing orders for their treatment and for the safety of the camp. Both the poems are well conceived and expressed in a polished style. Many stray stanzas uttered by him are found in the poetic collections known as Purananuru, Akananuru Kurunthokai and Narrinai.

The poems of Nakkirar are full of allusions to contemporary events and show that he was no ordinary bard who cared only to flatter and please his patrons; but was a fairly good scholar who strove to produce lasting memorials of his literary skill. It is from his verses that we know that Karikâl Chola settled the wandering tribes of Kurumbas^[20] ; that seven kings, whose names he mentions, were defeated by the Pandyan king NedunjCheliyan at A’1ankanam ;^[21] that the same Pandyan king invaded the Chera territory and went up to Muchiri (the Muziris of Ptolemy) on the western coast ;^[22] and that Palayan Maran defeated under the walls of Madura the large army with which Killi Valavan had invaded the Pandyan territory.^[23] He picks his words and uses the most appropriate expressions to convey his ideas, and his style is always dignified and elegant; but he tries to show off his learning and sometimes pushes his scholarship almost to the verge of pedantry. Besides the Tiru-Muru-kârrup-padai, nine small poems which are attributed to Nakkirar appear in the eleventh Book of the collection of Saiva hymns. The language of these poems is, however, so modern that no critical student will hesitate to declare them to be forgeries.^[24] The legend regarding the origin of these poems is found in tle Halasya Mahatmya, a Sanscrit chronicle of the temple of Siva at Madura, the pious author of which, whc lived about the eleventh century A.D., appears to have had little or no knowledge of ancient Tamil literature.^[25]

Mámúlanâr (A.D. 100-130): many verses composed by this bard are found in the Akananuru, and a few in the Kurunthokai and Narrinai. It appears from these verses that he was a great traveller and visited the Chera, Chola, and Pandya Kingdoms, Panan-Nadu (Wynaad), Tulu-Nad (South-Canara) and Erumai-Nadu (Mysore Province).^[26] He frequently mentions “the festive and wealthy town of Venkadam (the modern Tirupathi) ruled by the generous Pulli,” who seems to have been his patron.^[27] He alludes also to several ancient kings : Perunj-Chôrru-Utiyanj-Cheral ;^[28] Cheral-Athan who conducted an expedition by sea and cut down the Kadambu ;^[29] another Cheral-Athan who was defeated at Vennil by Karikal-Chola ;^[30] and the illegitimate Mauriyas who led their army up to Pothiya Hill, when Mohoor did not submit to the Kosar.^[31]

Kallândâr (A.D. 100-130) appears to have been a native of Venkadam, which town he says he quitted with his family during a severe famine.^[32] He travelled southwards and found

relief in the fertile regions on the banks of the river Kaviri, where the chieftains of Poraiyuru and Ambar welcomed him and treated with all the honor due to a minstrel.^[33] He accompanied the Pandyan army to the battle of Alankànam, and when the battle was over he sang the praises of the Victor Nedunj-Cheliyan and received a share of the spoils.^[34] He refers in his verses to the battle in which Kari, king of Mullûr, defeated and killed Ori, king of ‘the Kolli Hills,^[35] and to the battle in which Kalankâikkanni-nâr-mudich-cheral defeated Nannan.^[36] A commentary to the Tamil Grammar Tolkâppiyam is said to have been written by him, but it is not extant. The poem Kallâdam^[37] which recounts the miracles performed.by the god Siva at Madura is also ascribed to him; but the language of the poem and the numerous allusions to later events contained in it, stamp it as a spurious work.

Mankudi-Maruthanar (A.D. 90-130) or Maruthanâr of Mankudi is the earliest poet laureate mentioned in Tamil literature. The Pandyan King Nedunj-cheliyan, victor of Alankânam, speaks of him as the chief of the poets of his court. A few stanzas composed by him are found in the Pura-Nânuru; but the work by which he is, best remembered is the poem Maduraik-Kânchi,^[38] which he addressed to the king Nedunj-cheliyan. It is a moral epistle, and the author appears in the character of a teacher and a moralist; but as it is addressed to a restless and ambitious warrior flushed with success, who is his own patron and king, the author has considered it proper to render the moral to be conveyed as agreeable as possible by a profuse panegyric on the king and his prosperous dominion. The poem opens with an eloquent apostrophe in which the justice and wisdom and martial glory of the ancient line of the Pandyas is set forth; then it relates in glowing terms the various exploits of the king which have extended his authority and increased hia fame; and extols the personal merits of the king, his love of truth and justice, his faithful friendship and fearless bravery, his high sense of honor and unbounded charity. The monarch is asked to bear in mind the fact that of the many kings, great and good men, who graced the throne of the Pandyas before him, not one is alive! The poem then proceeds to describe with considerable wealth of detail the extensive country which owns the sway of the Pandya, comprising fertile fields, pasture lands, wild wastes, hill-tracts and a sea-coast studded with busy ports where fishermen, salt merchants, chank-cutters, and pearl-fishers ply their trade. It describes very vividly the proud and wealthy city of Madura, the scenes in the street’s and in the palace, the personal appearance of the Pandya, and the manner in which he reçeives and rewards his courtiers; and concludes with the advice that the king should follow in the footsteps of his pious ancestors, perform sacrifices, advance the welfare and secure the loyalty of his subjects, and enjoy the good things that the gods give. It will be seen from the poem that the author was an ardent lover of Nature, and a keen observer of men and manners. His descriptions are true to life; but his diction is not as polished and dignified as that of Nakkirar.

Tiru-valluvar (A.D. 100-130). His fame as the author of the Kural or Muppal will last as long as Tamil is a living language. I have already given a brief summary of the work and described how warmly it was approved of by the poets of the court of Ugra-Pandya. The immediate popularity of the Kural is proved by the fact that verses from it are quoted by contemporary authors such as Cheethalai-chattanâr^[39] and Ilankô-Adikal.^[40] After the lapse of eighteen hundred years it has lost none of its original favour among the Tamil people, and it is still considered the first of works from which, whether for thought or language, there is no appeal. No less than ten commentaries have been written on it at different times ; but the commentary which is most studied at present is that composed by Pari-mel-Alakar.^[41] Kovur-Kilar (A.D. 100-130) was a war hard who was very influential in the court of the Chola kings. Several stanzas composed by him in praise of Ched-chenni-Nalank-killi$alavan are found in the Pura-nanuru. In the civil wars that raged during the reign of Nalank-killi, between him and his younger brothers, Kovur-kilar was in the camp of Nedunk-killi. When Nalank-killi besieged Uraiyur and afterwards Avur, where his brother Nedunk-killi had taken refuge, the bard tried to reconcile the brothers.^[42] He saved the life of flan-thathan, a poor minstrel, whom Nedunk-killi was about to kill on the suspicion that he was a spy.^[43] During the reign of Killi-valavan, when that king seized the Sons of Malayaman and condemned them to be trampled by elephants, the bard saved the youths, by reminding the Chola-king of the deeds of mercy which had rendered the names of his ancestors celebrated in ancient song.^[44] When that king invaded the Chera kingdom and besieged the capital Karur, Kovur-killar and two other bards, Alathur-killar and Marokattu-Nappasalaiyar, were in the Chola camp.^[45] The following is a translation of one of the stanzas addressed by him to his patron Nalan-killi.

“We are the devoted bards of Nalan-killi, the fierce and brave warrior king of Chola-Na& who riding on a steed with flowing mane and jewelled trappings leads ai army as vast as a sea and lays waste the lands of his foes. We seek not rewards from the hands of others by singing their praises. Him alone we will sing and bless for ever! Thou lord of fleet steeds! Myself and my minstrel, youths, who know not the pangs of. hunger, but

have always feasted on sweets and rice and flesh fried in ghee (at thy palace) will never quit thy side! Give up thy peaceful habits and start like the hooded white serpent (springing on its enemy) with sparkling eyes and forked tongue. Let thy victorious chariot proceed against the fortresses of thy rival kings, and the whole of this sea-girt earth shall be thine ! Every time I strike my war- drum with the short stick with trinkling bells tied to it, thy foes shall tremble !“ ^[46]

Iraiyanâr (A.D. 100-130) author of a grammar of errotic poetry called Iraiyanâr-Akapporul. In later periods the author’s name was confounded with that of Siva and his insignificant treatise of sixty Sutras was considered the incomparable production of the god Siva!^[47]

Paranar (A.D. 100-130). Like most of the minstrels of this period he appears to have travelled through the Chera, Chola and Pandyan kingdoms, visiting the mansions of petty chiefs as well as the courts of kings. He refers to a confederacy of nine princes, most probably, Kurumbas, defeated by Karikal-Chola who had invaded their territories with a large army^[48] and to the defeat of Arya kings by Chenkudduva-Chera, the grandson of Karikal Chola.^[49] He praises the valor and munificence of Thittan, king of Uraiyur,^[50] of Uthiyan, chief of Pali, where gold mines were worked^[51] and of Thithiyan, chief of the Pothya hill, who defeated the Kosar.^[52] Ten stanzas composed by him in praise of the Chera king Chenkudduva, form part of the Pathirrup-pattu. The poetess Auvaiyar states that he was present when Kovalur, the capital of Kari, was stormed by Neduman-Anchi chief of the Athiyar, and sang the praises of the victor; but the verses uttered by him on the occasion are not now extant.^[53] The following is a translation of one of the stanzas sung by him on the battle-field in which both the rival kings Nedunj-cheral-Athan and Peru-virar-Killi died after a most sanguinary conflict.

“The elephants pierced by arrows are all disabled for ever. The splendid chargers are all slaughtered with their brave riders. The commanders who drove in their chariots all lie dead, their faces covered with their shields. The big thundering drums roll on the ground, as no drummer is alive. Both the contending kings have fallen on the battle-field, their perfumed breasts pierced by long lances. Alas! what will become of their fertile countries, in the cool rivers of which peasant girls decked with bracelets made of lily stalks, leap and sport?^[54]

Perunk-Kausikanâr (A.D. 100-130), a native of Perunkunrur, composed the Malaipadu-Kadu, a panegyric on Nannan, son of Nannan, chief of Chenkanma.^[55] The poem describes eloquently the grandeur of the scenery on the mountain Naviram; the ceaseless din on the hill sides caused by the roar of cascades falling on rocks, the shouts of the elephant trainers, the songs of women pounding millet, the whir of sugar-mills and the sound of drums beaten by drunken hill-men who dance merrily with their women; the stones with epitaphs inscribed on them set up in memory of departed warriors; the sign-posts planted at crossings showing the names of the places to which the roads lead; the hospitality of the hill-tribes; the rapid current of the river Cheyar which rushes whirling and eddying down the hill; the fort-gates guarded by soldiers armed with swords and lances: and the courteous reception of minstrels by the chief lannan who welcomes them graciously and expresses his regret for the tiresome ascent up the hill, and waits not till they finish their songs, but feasts them and sends them home loaded with presents.

Auvvaiyar (A.D. 100-130) the most famous of Tamil poetesses, is even more popular than Tiruvalluvar as the work of the latter is studied only by advanced scholars, while the poems of Auvvaiyar are read by every Tamil student, soon after learning the Alphabet. Her two books of aphorisms entitled Attichûdi and Konrai-venthan, written in the order of the Tamil Alphabet which the learned Beschi considered as “worthy of Seneca himself,”^[56] have been most appropriately called “the Golden Alphabet of the Tamils.”^[57] Being a minstrel by profession, she acquired in her early youth considerable facility in expressing herself in verse, and possessing naturally a literary turn of mind and poetic feeling, she appears to have improved them by extensive learning, so much so that she was soon recognised by her contemporaries as an accomplished poetess. She describes herself as appearing “with a shining forehead, eyelids painted black and wearing a jewelled girdle on her waist.”^[58] The best part of her life was spent in the court of Athiyaman-Anchi, prince of Thskadûr, who held her in great regard. She says that the halls and towers of Athiyaman’s palace echoed many a day with her songs, which she sang to the accompaniment of a tabor.^[59] Her intimacy with Athiyaman is expressed very quaintly by her as follows :—

“Pleasant art thou prince ! to us, as the huge elephant is to village youths, when it lies down in the river and allows them to wash its white tusks: but ferocious art thou to thy enemies as the same elephant is when in rut.”^[60] When the fruit of a certain Nelli-tree (Phyllanthus emblica) which was reputed to possess the marvellous virtue of prolonging life, was presented to Athiyaman, he did not eat it himself: but gave it to Auvvaiyar : and the grateful minstrel thanks him in the following words

“Thou Anchi! king of the Athiyar! Resistless in war: who wearing a golden necklace and wielding the victorious sword in thy powerful arm which is adorned with armlets, slayest thy enemies on every battle field! may thou be eminent for ever as the matchless God (Siva) whose throat is blue and who wears the silvery crescent on his head! For thou hast given me the sweet fruit of the elli-tree which grew on the giddy height of a lofty mountain, knowing that it will save me from Death.”^[61] Athiyaman sent Auvvaiyar once on an embassy to Thondaiman, king of Kanchi, most probably seeking the assistance of that king against his enemies.^[62] It is not known whether the embassy was successful or not : but some time afterwards Athiyaman vas killed in a battle: and the verses uttered by Auvvaiyar on the occasion are very pathetic.

If there was little liquor, he would let us drink it: if there was much, he would also share it joyously with us, while we sang to him. Whether it was a simple meal or a grand feast, he would sit to meal with a large company of guests. Wherever bone and meat were plentiful he would place us; wherever arrows and lances were aimed he would take his stand. With his perfumed hands he would stroke my head. Alas! the lance that pierced his beloved breast, pierced at the same time the alms bowl of his minstrels, the hands of the poor whom he fed, and the tongues of the learned poets of his court. Dim are the eyes of his dependents, with weeping! Oh! where is he our dear prince? No more are there bards to sing or patrons to reward them. But many are the men who are as useless to this world as the flower of the Pahanrai which blooms on the cool banks of rivers: but is not worn by any one.”^[63] After the death of her patron Athiyaman-Anchi she travelled in the Tondi-Nad and some years hence returned to Thakadur, where Elini, the son of Neduman-Anchi, received her very kindly. She describes her reception as follows :—^[64] “Early- on a dewy morning, while the mild moon was still shining, I stood at the entrance to the palace of Elini, King of the Athiyar, and striking the drum which I carried in my hand, I sang “Long life to thee Elini! King of tle Athiyar! who stormest thy enemies’ forts and ravagest their fields!” Straightway he welcomed me and made me change my dirty dress and put on fine new clothes which he presented. In a golden cup he offered me strong old liquor which fired my blood to a frenzy and he feasted me right royally.”

She attended the magnificent sacrifice performed by the Chola king Peru-nar-Killi, and she had the honor of addressing the three Tamil kings, Ugrapperu-Valuthy, Peru-nar-Killi and the Chera Ma-ven-ko, who were seated together on the occasion. She exhorted them to do good during all their life time, which alone she said would save them in the future.^[65] As a specimen of the pure principles and practical philosophy she preached, I give below a translation of the first eight lines of the Attichudi or the Golden Alphabet :—

1. Desire to do charity.
2. Anger should be controlled.
3. Fail not to render what help lies in your power.
4. Prevent not the giving of alms.
5. Reveal not what you possess.
6. Slacken not exertion.
7. Neglect not numbers and letters.
8. Begging is shameful.

In the Vinôda-rasa-manjari, which is a collection of amusing stories and anecdotes, composed by the late Virasami Chettiar, Tamil Pandit of the Presidency College, Madras, Auvvaiyar is frequently mentioned as a contemporary of the Chola king Kulôttunga, who lived in the ninth or tenth century A.D., and was the patron of the famous poets Oddaik-Kûttar, Kambar and Pukalenti.^[66] In other recent works of Tamil Pandits, she is spoken of as having lived during The time of Sundarar the devotee of Siva, and of his friend and patron Cheraman Perumal, the last of the Chera kings. These stories appear to be of every recent origin and are not supported by any authority in classical works, or in the old commentaries: and should therefore be rejected as entirely groundless. It is clear from her poems which are preserved in the Purananuru and Akanamuru that she flourished during the reign of the Pandyan king Ugrap-peruvaluti in the beginning of the second century A.D.^[67] and could not have therefore been a contemporary of the mediœval kings Kulothunga Chola or Cheraman Perumal. But Tamil Pandits, who love the marvellous, assert with a show of wisdom, that Auvvaiyar lived to the extraordinary age of six or seven hundred years, and that in her youth she was a contemporary of Ugra-Pandya, and in her old age of Kulothunga-Chola, whose reign commenced seven centuries later! Two poems entitled Panthanantati and Asatikkovai are attributed to Auvvaiyar; but their modern language betrays that they are the works of a much later poet.^[68]

Idaik-kâddandâr (A.D. 100-130) was the author of the Oosimuri, a poem which is not now extant, but which is quoted in Gunasagara’s commentary to the Yapp-arunk-kalatn.^[69] He visited the camp of the Chola king Killi-valavan, when he was besieging Karûr, the Chera capital.

Cheettalaich-châttanar (A.D. 1l0-140) was the son of a corn dealer of Madura. He professed Buddhism, and was eminent as a logician, theologian and poet. A stanza composed by him in praise of the Pandyan king Nan-maran is as follows :—^[70]

“Thou angust Valuti, whose arms are long and powerful and whose breast is resplendent with strings of precious gems! a perfect master art thou of courteous and gracious acts. Never wouldst thou tolerate what is false. To thy enemies, thou art like the burning sun, which rises above the ocean: but to thy subjects like myself, thou art like the pleasant moon.”

His fame rests on his great work the Mani-mekalai, which is the earliest of the five epic poems in Tamil. It is a most finished piece of writing and contains many passages of great beauty. The style is simple and elegant; and the phrases used are well turned and full of deep meaning. He excels most in his exquisite descriptions of natural scenery. He portrays beautifully the character of the heroine Mani-mêkalai, who, though young a11! beautiful and the daughter of an actress, devotes herself to a religious life and becomes a Buddhist nun. She is courted by a handsome prince, the son of the reigning king, but remains faithful to her vow, and far from acting the prude, she feels for her lover like a true woman, and tries to wean his heart from the lusts of the flesh and to lead him to a holy and spiritual life. In the last four chapters of the epic, where the author describes the six schools of philosophy that were then popular, he shows himself to be a master of the logical subtleties, and metaphysical cobwebs which formed the constant theme of argument among the learned men of his time. After completing the Mani-mêkalai, he visited Karur, the capital of the Chera kingdom, and remained there for a long Lime a the guest of the king Chenk-kudduvan, and of his accomplished brother, Ilanko-adikal.

Ilanko-adikal (A.D. 110-140) was the second son of the Chera king, Athan, and grandson of the Chola king Karikal, by his daughter Sonai. In his youth he renounced the world and became a monk of the Nigrantha sect, under the following circumstances: He and his elder brother Chenk-kudduvan, were seated one day at the foot of their father’s throne in the audience halt at Karur, when a seer appeared before the king Cheral Athan, and after gazing for a while at the king and his two sons, declared that the younger son had all the personal marks of becoming a great monarch. Finding that Chenkkudduvan was enraged at this prediction, his younger brother immediately laid aside his princely dress and ornaments, and took the vows of a Nigrantha monk, to prevent all possibility of his succeeding to the throne. Thenceforth he resided in a temple outside the eastern gate of the city. Relieved of all the cares of royalty he appears to have employed his leisure in cultivating his taste for music and literature. Many years afterwards when the poet Cheettalaich-châttanar visited the Chera court, and recited to the prince, the epic Mani-mêkalai which he had composed, the royal monk conceived the idea of writing another epic poem to commemorate the lives of Mani-mêkala's parents, Kovilan and Kannaki. Accordingly he composed the Chilapp-athikaram, in the presence of the poet Cheettalaich-chattanar. In elegance of style, the poem approaches the Manimêka1ai: but in the varied scenes it describes, in the wealth of information it contains regarding the different classes of society, it is far more interesting to the student and the general reader. The author displays all his knowledge of the science of music and dancing: and has embellished his work with ditties of love and play and sacred hymns, in various metres. The characters of the hero and heroine are well depicted. Kovilan, the son of a wealthy merchant, is a gay and foolish young man. He is married at an early age to an amiable and virtuous girl : but being fond of music and dance he frequents the public theatres, and falls in love with the most beautiful actress of his day : lavishes all his wealth upon her: then ashamed of his conduct he flees from his native city with his young wife to Madura, where instead of seeking the help of the merchants who knew his father, he lodges in the house of a shepherdess; and going out alone to sell one of his wife’s jewels, is accused of having stolen the jewel from the palace, and is killed by one of the royal guards. Kannaki is a model wife, who loves and adores her husband although he is faithless to her. So sweet is her temper, that she never reproaches him, but studies his slightest wish and devotes herself to his service. After he had squandered all his wealth she follows him in his flight to a strange city: and when he is killed there accused of theft, she appears boldly before the king of that city and proves that her husband was not a thief. Then she gives way to despair; and wandering along the road leading into the Chera country dies broken-hearted on the fourteenth day after her husband’s death.

Arisil-kilâr (A. D. 110-140) is the author often stanzas in praise of the Chera king Perum-cheral-Irum-Porai, who captured Thakadr, the capital of Atiyamn Elii. Several of his &tanzas occur also in the Thakadûr Yâthirai.^[71]

Pon-mudiyâr (A. D 110-140) a war bard who accompanied the army of the Chera king Perum-cheral-Irum-Porai, when it marched against Thakadûr. His verses are full of martial spirit and describe vividly and graphically stirring scenes on the battle-field.^[72]

Perunk-kunrur-kilar (A. D. 120.150). Ten stanzas composed by him in praise of^[73] Perum-cheral-Irum-Porai are preserved in the Patirrup-pattu.

The following list shows the names of the Tazuil poems composed between the years A. D. 50 and 150, and the number of lines contained in each poem :—

Muppâl or Kural   ... ... ... 2,660 lines. 
Mani-mêkalai      ... ... ... 4,857    ”
Chillap-adikaram  ... ... ... 4,957    ”
Kalith-thokai     ... ... ... 4,304    ”
Innâ-nârpatu      ... ... ...   160    ”
Perunk-kurinchi   ... ... ...   261    ”

Kurinchi (by Kapilar in Ainkuru-miru) 

  about            ...  ...  ...   400 lines. 
Tiru-murukârrup-padai   ...  ...   317   „
Nedu-nal-vadai     ...  ...  ...   188   „
Porunar-arrup-padai...  ...  ...   248   „
Perum-pân-rup-padai...  ...  ...   500   „
Paddinap-pâlai     ...  ...  ...   301   „
Maduraik-kânchi    ...  ...  ...   782   „
Malai-padu-kadam   ...  ...  ...   583   „
Patirrup-patu (41—50)   ...  about 150   „
     Do.      (61—70)   ...  about 150   „  
     Do.      (71—80)   ...  about 150   „ 
     Do.      (81-90)   ...  about 150   „ 
About 300 stanzas composed by the
poets of this period which are 
found in the Pura-nânûru, 
Akananuru Kuruntokai and 
Narrinai                     about 4,000 „
                        Total ... 25,118 „

It will be seen from the above list that more than 25,000 lines of verse written by poets who flourished between the years A. D. 50 and 150 are still extant, and furnish ample material for studying the history and civilization of the ancient Tamils. Embalmed in this literature we find a faithful picture of their habits and manners and of their social and political condition, in a form which is far more enduring than if it had been engraved on brass or stone. There are several allusions in this literature to ancient Aryan works which throw considerable light on the history and religion of the Aryan races which inhabited Northern India. The four Vedas were generally known as the “Nan Marai” or the four Secret Books, which brings out clearly the fact that the Brahmins jealously concealed all knowledge of the Vedas from the Tamils. The Brahmins were described as ”the owners of the four Secret Books” and as “the learned in the six sciences” that is the six Angas^[74] : viz., Kalpa, Nirukta, Chhandas, Jyotish, Siksha and Vyakarana. The ancient grammar Indra Vyakarana which is not now extant, was then studied by the Brahmins, and proficiency in the Indra Vyakarana was considered as evidence of superior scholarship. The Tamils were familiar with the stories of the Ramayana and Mahabharata. They knew the Buddhist Pitakas, the Nigrantha Agamas, and the sacred books of Markali, the founder of the Ajivaka sect. They knew too the six schools of philosophy. It is remarkable that there is no allusion to Pânini’s Vyakarana or Patanjali’s Yoga philosophy, which were evidently unknown in Southern India, and had not become popular in Northern India.

---

1. The Kalith-thokai was published in print by Rai Bahadur C.W.Tamotharam Pillai in the year 1887.
2. Kalith-thokai, 76.
3. Ibid., 47.
4. Ibid., 49
5. Ibid., 23
6. Ibid., 134
7. Ibid., 96
8. Ibid., 128.
9. Ibdi., 150
10. Puranânuru 62, 65, 270, 288,, 388.
11. Pathupp-pattu, 61 to 70
12. Puranânurû, 200, 201, 202 and 236.
13. Ibid, 121 to 124.
14. Ibid 143 to 147.
15. Ibid., 236.
16. Pathirupp-pattu, 63.
17. Akananuru, 78.
18. Ibid., 126.
19. Purananuru, 53.
20. Akam, 140.
21. Ibid., 36.
22. Ibid., 57.
23. Ibid, 345.
24. The late Professor P. Sundaram Pillai, M.A., was of the same opinion. Christian College Magazine for August 1891,. p. 127. The names of the nine poems are as follow :-

    1. Kayilai-pâti-kâlatti-pâti-antâti.
    2. Eenkôy-malai-elupatu.
    3. Valanchuli-mum-manik.kôvai.
    4. Elu-kûrr-irukkai.
    5. Perum-deva-pâni.
    6. Kopap-prasâtam.
    7. Kár-eddu.
    8. Pôrrik-kali-ven-pâ.
    9. Kannappa-devar-tiru maram.

25. The poem states that during the reign of the Pandyan king Vankya Sekaran 43 Pandit from Kási (Benares) travelled southwards and settled at Madura under the patronage of the Pandya. His successor Vankiya-Chûdmani aliâs Champaka-Mâran was one day seated in the royal park, with his queen, and charmed by the fragrant smell of her tresses, wondered whether the fragrance was natural or acquired. In a gay mood he sent word to the poets of his court offering a parse of 1,000 gold coins to anyone who would guess his thought and solve his doubt. The poets who were not thought-readers were at a loss to know what they should do to satisfy their royal patron. A poor Brahmin who heard of this handsome offer thought it a good opportunity to enrich himself, and entering the temple of Siva and falling at the feet of the image of the god, prayed fervently that the god should help him to win the prize. Moved by his prayer the god gave him a palm leaf with a stanza written on it. The Brahmin received it with joy and hastened to the Poet’s hall and presented the verse. It was a gem of poetry: every one pronounced it beautiful in language and sentiment. It was taken to the king who read it with pleasure and ordered that the purse of gold be given to the Brahmin. He hurried back to the poet’s hall to receive the prize: but Nakkirar said that there was a fault in his verse, and that the prize ought not to be awarded to him. The Brahmin, sadly disappointed, retraced his steps to the temple of Siva and falling once more at the feet of Siva’s image implored the mercy of the god. Incensed at the presumption of Nakkirar in criticising his verse, the god assumed the form of a bard, and appearing in the assembly of poets, enquired which of them had dared to find fault in his verse. Nakkirar replied that it was himself and that the fault was in the statement that women’s tresses wore naturally fragrant, which he said was impossible. The god enquired whether the tresses of Padminis, the highest class of women, were not naturally fragrant? “No” said the defiant Nakkirar. “Are not the tresses of celestial women fragrant” enquired the god irritated. “No” repeated Nakkirar “unless they wore the celestial Mandhâra flower in their hair.” “Are not the tresses of Parvati, the goddess whom you worship, naturally fragrant is” asked the god with kindling anger. “No” asserted the obstinate Nakkirar. The wrath of the god was now uncontrollable. The eye in the centre of the god’s forehead opened and emited flames. “It is false: even if thou openest a thousand eyes,” said the dauntless Nakkirar, carried away by his blind zeal to maintain what was right. The divine eye flashed a ray of fire on Nakkirar, and the latter scorched by the heat fell instantly from his seat, into the tank of the golden lotus: and the god disappeared. In humble repentance the poet then composed the nine poems to appease the wrath of the god.
     
    The Mahatmya names Kapilar and Paranar as the contemporaries of Nakkirar during the reign of Champaka Mâran. Continuing the narrative the poem states that fourteen kings reigned at Madura after Champaka Mâran; and during the reign of the fifteenth king Kulesa Pandya that is, after the lapse of about a century, it introduces again, with no little absurdity, the poet Kapilar and his friend Idaik-Kâdar.
     
    See also Tiru-vilaiyâdar-purânam, chapters 51, 53 and 56.
26. Akam, 15, 114.
27. Ibid., 61, 294, 310, 393.
28. Ibid., 233.
29. Ibid., 346, 126.
30. Ibid., 55.
31. Ibid., 250.
32. Puram, 391.
33. Ibid., 385.
34. Ibid., 371.
35. Akam, 208.
36. Ibid., l98.
37. This poem was printed some years ago with a commentary by Maiyil-êrum-perumal Pillai for the first 37 stanzas and by Subbraya Mudaliar for 62 stanzas.
38. Published by the Tamil Pandit V. Sâminâtha Iyer in 1889; the sixth poem in the Pattup-pâddu.
39. Main-makalai, xxii, 208 and 209.
40. Chillapp-adikaram, xxi, 3 and 4.
41. Published by the late Arumuga Navalar. The names of the commentators are: Dharmar, Manak-kudavar, Thamattar, Nachchar, Pari-melalakar, Parnti, Triu-malaiyar, Mallar, Kavip-perumal and Kalinkar. According to the Kapilar-Akaval, which is a spurious poem, Uppai, Uruvai, Valli, Avvaiyar, Athikarman, Kapilar and Triuvalluvar were the issues of the illegitimate union of Bagavan, a Brahmin, and A’di, a Pariah woman. Their parents led a wandering life in the Tamil country, and abandoned each child as soon as it was born: but the children were brought up as foundlings by strangers, and lived to become famous. The story is palpably untrue for if each child had been abandoned as soon as it was born, the story does not state by what means their common origin was afterwards discovered, It is surprising that Mr. Simon Casie Chetty, author of the Tamil Plutarch and Mr. J. R. Arnold, author of the Galaxy of Tamil Poets, have accepted this story as true.
42. Puram, 44, 45.
43. Ibid., 47.
44. Ibid., 46.
45. Ibid., 36, 37
46. Ibid., 382.
47. Published by Rao Bahadur C. W. Thamôtharam Pillai, with the commentary Nilakandan.
48. Akam, 124.
49. Ibid., 396.
50. Ibid.,
51. Ibid., 257.
52. Ibid., 195.
53. Puram, 99.
54. Ibid., 63. This stanza was most probably composed by an earlier poet.
55. The tenth poem in the Pattup-paddu.
56. Babington’s Chen Tamil Grammar Introduction, p. xi.
57. Asiatic Researches, vii, p. 350, London Edition.
58. Puram, 89.
59. Ibid., 390.
60. Ibid., 94.
61. Ibid., 91.
62. Ibid., 95.
63. Ibid., 235.
64. Ibid., 392.
65. Ibid., 367.
66. Vinoda.rasa-manjari, p. 57.
67. Pura-nanuru.
68. Vinoda-ras-manjari.
69. Yapp-arun-kalak-karikai.
70. Pura-na-nuru.
71. Tol-kappiyam, Porul-atthikaram Nachchinarkk-iniyar’s commentary.
72. Ibid.
73. Patirrup-pattu 88.
74. Kalpa (cermonia1), Nirukta (Etymology), Chhandas (metre) Jyotisha (astronomy), Siksha (phonetics) Vyakarana (grammar).