The Tamils Eighteen Hundred Years Ago/Chapter 14

by Visvanatha Kanakasabhai Pillai

CHAPTER XIV. 

The Six Systems of Philosophy.

The following is a brief summary of the six systems of philosophy as given in the Tamil epic poem Mani-mêkalai, which I trust will be found very interesting, as it is the earliest comparative account we have of the ancient schools of Hindu philosophy: and differs in many respects from the current accounts of the six systems.^[1]

“She (Mani-mêkalai) approached the professors of philosophy, eager to know the true nature of things, and going up to the Vedic philosopher requested him to explain his tenets. (He stated that) an accurate knowledge of things may be obtained by ten means: Perception, Inference, Comparison, Authority, Implication, Propriety, Rumour, Impossibility, Reversion, and Association. The authors Veda-Vyasa, Krutakôdi and Jaimini recognised ten, eight and six of these means respectively. Correct perfection is of five kinds. It is to know colour by the eye; sound by the ear; smell by the nose; taste by the tongue; and touch by the body. To see, hear, smell, taste and touch with feelings of pain or pleasure, with life and sense and mind in perfect health, and in light and space free from any defect, and to ascertain the place, name, class, quality and action of a thing, without the faults of prejudice, incongruity or doubt is Perception.

“Inference is the mental process by which we understand the nature of an object, and it is of three kinds: by co-existence by the effect or by the cause. (Inference by) co-existence is to know the presence of an elephant on hearing its trumpeting in a forest. (Inference by) effect is to say that it has been raining on seeing floods. (Inference by) cause is to say that it will rain on seeing a dark cloud. Whether the cause and effect be past, present or future, to know the existence of a thing that is not seen by a thing that is seen, without the faults of prejudice (incongruity and doubt) is Inference

"Comparison is to know a thing by similarity, for instance, to imagine that a bison is like a cow.

"Authority is to believe that heaven and hell exist because they are mentioned in the writings of the wise.

"Implication is to understand that a shepherd’s village stands on the banks of the Gangai, whorL we are told that it is on the Gangai.

"Propriety is when a man mounted on an elephant asks for a thing (to know that he asks for a goad) and to give a goad and nothing else.

"Rumour is what people generally say: for instance to believe that an evil spirit had taken its residence on a certain tree.

"Impossibility is the denying of an object where it cannot possibly be.

"Reversion is to infer that. the wicked Ravana was defeated, when we hear that Rama was victorious.

"Association is to know that iron changes into magnet by a peculiar alteration in its properties.

“Of fallacious mediums there are eight kinds: Prejudice, Misconception, Doubt, Decision without examination, Failure of perception, False Belief, Belief in what is felt arid Imagination. PreJudice is to decide the nature of everything (by first impressions). Misconception is to suppose one thing to be another: for example, mistaking the shining shell of an oyster to be silver. Doubt is to be uncertain of the nature of an object; for instance, to remain undecided whether a certain figure (seen in the dusk) is a man or the stump of a tree. Decision without examination is to mistake the stump fixed on the polo ground for a man. Failure of perception is not to know (the danger in) the approach of a ferocious tiger, although seeing it coming. False belief is to believe in the horn of a hare, which is imagine on hearsay. Believe in what is felt is for example to fancy that sitting near a fire, will cure fever. Imagination is (for instance) to believe on the assertion of others that a man and woman are your parents.

“The different systems of philosophy are Lokâyatam, Bauddbam, Sànkhyam, Naiyâyikam, Vaiseshikam and Mimânsakam: and the authors of these systems are Brihaspati, Jina, Kapila, Akshapâtha, Kanâda, and Jaimini respectively. Only six of the above mediums of knowledge are recognised in the above systems.

“She then met the Saiva-vati who holds that Isa is the Lord (of the universe) and asked him to explain the nature of his deity. ‘He governs the two luminaries (Sun and Moon) life, and the five elements; He unites the soul and body: and created this world as a pastime. His form is made of rays of light. Mighty is he to remove all sorrows by death. There is nothing else beside him. He is our God, said he. the Brahmavati said that the whole universe was an egg laid by a God. The earnest believer in Vishnu said that Narayana preserves the whole world. The Vedic Brahmin said that the Veda had the Kalpa as its hands, the Chhandas as its legs, Jyotiṡh as its eyes, Nirukta as its ears, Siksha as its nose and Vyakarna as its face: and that it is self-existent and has neither beginning nor end.

“Finding that those statements were neither true nor accepted as such by the world, she went to the Professor of the Ajivaka religion, and asked him to state who was his God and what was taught by his Sacred Books. The supreme Intelligence which is found associated with every thing and for ever, through the boundless universe, is God. Our Book teaches of five things, that is, the soul and the four kinds of eternal atoms. These atoms will collect and separate, so that the soul may mix with them, and see and feel them. The atoms are of four kinds: those of the earth, water, fire and wind. They may collect and form mountains, trees or bodies, or they may separate and expand through space: and what recognises these is called the soul. the atoms of earth collect and become hard and form the ground. The atoms of water are heavy and cool and rest on the earth, and can be tasted. The atoms of fire are hot and ascend: and the atoms of wind spread and move. Under special conditions they may exhibit other phenomena. The eternal atoms never cease to exist, nor do they newly come into existence: nor can one atom enter another. An atom of water cannot change into an atom of earth: nor can one atom be split into two: nor flattened out of its shape. They may move and fall or rise. They may collect and form a mountain, or disperse and resume their shape as atoms. They may become very hard as diamonds, or hollow as bamboo, or appear as other objects. When they appear in large masses as the elements, they may be more or less or eqûal (to each other) or appear as a whole, or three-quarters or half or quarter, and each mass will be named according to the kind of atoms which are excessive in it. If they do not possess these properties they cannot be hard as earth, or flow as water, or burn as fire, or blow as wind. Only those who have divine eyes can see a single atom. Others in their physical bodies cannot discern it, just as in the twilight men cannot perceive a single hair, but can clearly see a mass of hair. Souls are born in bodies of six different colours, viz., black, blue, green, red, yellow and white. When born in pure white bodies souls attain release and happiness. If they fail to attain release, they would again descend in the scale of births and rise up like the turning of a wheel. To gain, to lose, to meet reverses, or successes, to feel pain or pleasure, to part from associations, to be born and to die are destined when the body is conceived in the womb. Pain and pleasure may be also considered eternal atoms, it is the effect of former deeds that is felt afterwards. The book of Markali explains in this manner: "Leaving this confusion of words she asked the Niganta (Nigranta) to state who was his God, and what was taught in his sacred books, and to exclaim correctly how things exist and are formed or dissolved. He said that his God is worshipped by Indras: and that the books revealed by him describe the following :—The wheel of Law, the axle of Law, Time, Ether, Soul, Eternal atoms, good deeds, bad deeds, the bonds created by those deeds and the way to obtain release from those bonds. Things by their own nature, or by the nature of other objects to which they are attached are temporary or everlasting. Within the short period of a Kshana (second) they may pass through the three unavoidable stages, appearance, existence and dissolution. That a margosa tree sprouts and grows is eternal: that it does not possess that property is temporary. Green gram when made into a sweetmeat with other ingredients does not lose its nature, but loses its form. The wheel of Law (Dharma) pervades everywhere and moves all things in order and for ever. In the same way the axle of the Law retains everything (and prevents dis solution). Time may be divided into seconds or extend to Eons. Ether expands and gives room for everything. The soul entering a body will, through the five senses, taste, smell, touch, hear and see. An atom may become a body or assume other forms. To stop the origin of good and evil deeds, and to enjoy the effect of past deeds, and to cut off all bonds is release (salvation).”

The professor of the Sânkhya system then said that the Original Producer (Mûla-Prakriti) is unknowable, undisturbed by mind, grand and all-comprising, possesses three qualities^[2] and is the source of all things. From that Being, Intelligence is born: from it, ether: from it, air: from it, fire: from it, water: from it, earth: from the union of these the mind is born: from the mind self-consciousness is born: from ether sound is produced through the ear: from air the sense of touch is produced through the skin: from fire the sense of light through the eye: from water the sense of taste through the mouth: from earth the sense of smell through the nose: from the union of these appear the tongue, hands, feet, anus and genitals: by the union of the (grosser) elements are produced mountains, trees and other objects of this world. In the same manner in which these objects were evolved into existence, they will recede and disappear. Till the universal deluge these will expand continuously throughout space. The soul (Furusha) is easy to be recognised and capable of perceiving all things, one, eternal, unchangeable and sensitive, but without the three qualities, possesses no organ of sense and is incapable of producing anything by itself. There are twenty-five entities, viz., earth, water, fire, air and ether: the skin, the mouth, the eye, the nose, and the ear: the sense of taste, light, tangibility, sound and smell: tongue, feet, hands, anus and genitals: the mind, intelligence, self-consciousness, the Original Producer and the soul.

“After listening to this faultless exposition (of the Sankhya system) she asked the Vaisêshika professor to explain his doctrine. He said that there are six divisions (or categories of objects) viz., substance, quality, action, genus, individuality and con concretion. Of these, substance possesses quality and action and is the origin of all objects. It has nine divisions: earth, water, fire, air, ether, space, time, soul and mind. Of these earth has five qualities; sound, tangibility, colour, savour and odour. The remaining four (water, fire, air, and ether) have each one quality less (than those possessed by its predecessor in the order in which they are named: that is to state more clearly, water has the qualities of sound, tangibility, colour and savour: fire has the qualities of sound, tangibility and colour: wind has the qualities of sound and tangibility, and ether has only one quality, sound). Collected substance has many qualities such as, sound, tangibility, colour, odour, savour, largeness, smallness, hardness, softness, goodness, meanness, form and space. Action is produced by substance and its qualities. The highest genus is truth or (being). As motion and rest are general qualities, dissolution and existence are natural to substance. Individuality is in atoms. Concretion is the intimate connection between attribute and subject.”

“She then asked the Bhûtarâti to speak and he said :—Just as the intoxication of toddy is generated by adding jaggery and the flower of the Dhatakee (Bauhinia-racemosa) to other ingredients, so does consciousness appear when the elements mix together (and form a body). Consciousness disappears like the sound of a broken drum when the elements (which form a body) disperse. The elements which, associated with life, possess feeling, and the elements which, separated from life, possess no feeling, are born from their respective elements. This is the true doctrine: The opinions of the Lokâyata are the same with slight differences. Except what is perceived by the senses, all that is inferred by the mind does not exist. The world and its effect exist in the present birth. That we enjoy the effects of our deeds in a future birth is false.”

Having listened to the professors of the five systems of philosophy, viz., (i) The Vedic Pramânavâta or Mimânsa, (ii) the Naiyâyika which comprised the Ajivaka and Nigranta Schisms, (iii) the Sânkhya, (iv) Vaisêshika, and (v) Bhûtavâta or Lokâyata. Manimekalai was eager to learn the Bauddha system, and went to the venerable Buddhist monk and said “I have heard the five philosophical systems, and as none of them appear to me to be correct, I do not believe in any of them. Venerable monk, I beseech thee to teach me the truth.” “I shall teach thee, listen to me attentively” replied the monk (and continued). “The sources of true knowledge according to A’dhi-Jinêndra are only two. Right perception and inference. Perception he has described as conscious feeling (through the senses); name, species, quality, action and so forth (of an object) are (known by) inference. (In ascertaining) cause or effect and (in making a) general inference we may be wrong: but the inference of an effect as smoke from fire is correct. All other sources of knowledge are irregular inferences. There are five (parts in every inference or syllogism) Assertion, Reason, Example, Comparison and Deduction.

‘This mountain has fire’ is Assertion.

‘Because it has smoke ‘ is Reason.

‘Like the kitchen-hearth’ is Example.

‘This mountain also has smoke is Comparison.

‘As it has smoke it has fire’ is Deduction.

‘Whatever does not possess fire cannot be accompanied by smoke as for instance a stream (of water) is an example of the Negative of the Assertion. Enquiring into the nature of the correct Reason of an effect is as follows:-

‘Sound is non-eternal’ is Assertion.

‘Because it is made’ is Reason.

‘Whatever is made is non-eternal like a jar' is Example.

‘Whatever is eternal is not made like the sky' is a Negative Example.

An inference without correct reason is as follows :—

‘There is no jar in this open space’ is Assertion.

‘Because it is not visible’ is Reason.

‘Because the hare has no horn we do not see it’ is Example.

‘Whatever exists can be seen, like the nelly fruit on the palm’ is a negative example. In this manner a cause should be established. If it is asked what smoke has proved, the answer is By the concomitance that ‘where there is smoke there is fire and the converse negative fact that ‘where there is no fire there is no smoke’ smoke proves (the existence of) fire. The upward and curling progress of smoke is the effect of fire; and hence the rising black smoke proves (the cause which is) fire. If the concomitance (alone) is to prove the fact, one who saw a donkey and a harlot together at a certain place and at a certain time, should at a subsequent time, when he sees a donkey, infer also the presence of a harlot: but this is (manifestly) incorrect. (Similarly) if the converse negative fact that “where there is no fire there is also no smoke” (alone) is to prove the (above) fact (when one sees) that there is neither a dog’s tail nor a fox’s tail in the hind part of a donkey, he should not infer the presence of a dog’s tail, when he sees the tail of a fox at another place.

“Both Comparison and Deduction are subordinate to Example, Assertion, Reason and Example may be correct or fallacious. “A correct Assertion is that which has a clear subject and a clear predicate distinct and well defined; as for instance (the Assertion) sound is eternal or non-eternal.’ Here sound is the subject, eternity or non-eternity is the predicate.

“Right Reason is of three kinds: it may be founded on the Assertion itself; or it may be from Analogy or from the Negative proposition. If it is from Analogy, it should be from a perfect similitude, for instance, if it is intended to assert that sound is non-eternal (the Reason by Analogy would be) ‘even as non-eternal as a jar.’ If it is from a Negative Proposition it is as follows: ‘whatever is eternal is not made as the sky.’ To be made: and to appear during a certain action, constitute a proper reason for non-eternity, according to Assertion, Analogy and the Negative Proposition.

“Right Example is of two kinds : it may be Positive or Negative. A Positive Example is (as follows) :—‘Non-eternity is concomitant with Jars and the like.’ A Negative Example is to show that the effect (predicate) does not exist where the cause (reason) does not exist. The above are correct premises (in argument).” ^[3]

Having explained the means by which a correct knowledge of the nature of things may be obtained, the Buddhist monk proceeded to expound the doctrines of Buddha as follows :— “Once upon a time when all the sentient beings (of this world) were wholly bereft of wisdom, Vâman (the beautiful) quitted the Dusmitalôka (a heavenly region) and appeared (in this world) yielding to the earnest prayer of hosts of crowned immortals. He sat at the foot of the bôdhi (tree) and having conquered Mâra (the tempter) the hero got rid of the three evils, and preached the truths of salvation, which countless Buddhas had graciously proclaimed (in past ages). Twelve Causes form a path (for births). They arise one out of another and disappear one after another in regular succession. They act in a cycle disappearing in the same order in which they appear; each one vanishing when the next one vanished or springing into existence when the next one appeared, and may be regarded as a continuous chain. (This chain) is in four parts (Khanda) and has three links (sandhi). It leads to three kinds of birth; and there are three divisions of time suitable to those births. Out of (this chain) spring our defects, deeds and their results. It ensures our salvation when we realise that it is ever in motion and leads to no good but ends in suffering. Four Truths depend on it and the five aggregates (skandhas) form its basis. It may be described by six modes of expression. It produces four benefits, through four excellent qualities (of the mind), and questions about it may be answered in four ways. It has neither beginning nor end. It acts continuously and never ceases. It has no creators, nor was it ever created. In it there is no idea of ‘I’ or’ mine’ and nothing is lost or gained. It cannot be brought to a close, nor will it itself come to an end. All actions and their results, Birth and Release and all such (changes) are caused by itself.

“Ignorance, Action, Consciousness, Name and Form, The senses, Contact, Sensation, Desire, Attachment, Existence, Birth and the Result of deeds; these are the twelve causes. If those who are born understand (these twelve) they would attain great happiness: if they do not understand (them) they would suffer in the lower worlds.

“Not to understand those above mentioned (the twelve causes) and to act under mental illusion, forgetting the conditions of nature which are perceivable by the senses: to trust in hearsay and believe in the existence of (such imaginary objects as) a hare’s horn is Ignorance.

“The innumerable living creatures in the three worlds are of six kinds: men, gods, good-spirits, infernal beings, beasts and ghosts. According to their good and evil deeds they are born and, from the time of their conception, they enjoy pleasure and pain in due time, and corresponding to the accumulated effect of their deeds (Karma).

“What are evil deeds? listen thou fair maid who wearest choice bracelets! Killing, theft and adultery which are the three sins of the restless body: lying, slander, abuse and vain conversation, which are the four sins of speech: covetousness, malice and scepticism, which are the three sins of the mind: These ten (sins) wise men who know the effect (of their deeds) will avoid. If they do not avoid them they would be born as beasts, demons, or inhabitants of the lower worlds, and be distracted by sorrow.

“What are good deeds? (They are as follow): to avoid the above-mentioned ten (sins); to observe the rules of purity: and above all to practice charity. Those who do these good deeds will be born in the three higher forms of birth that is as gods, human-beings, or good spirits and enjoy pleasure according to (the measure of) their good deeds.

Consciousness is like the perception of men in sleep, and is not affected by the senses.

Name and Form are the conceptions of (one’s own) life and body arising out of that consciousness.

The six gates (or senses) are the organs through which impressions are made on consciousness.

Contact is the approach of consciousness to outside object through the senses.

Sensation is the feeling created in consciousness by external objects.

Desire is the wish for more of (a particular) sensation.

Attachment is the bond created by desire.

Existence is the life (we lead) being the sum of our deeds of consciousness drawn by attachment.

Birth is the appearance in an organised body which is the effect of former deeds.

Disease is the falling off from the natural (healthy) state and the advent of pains in the body: Old age is the weakness which sets in the body after long life. Death is the dissolution of the body, which bore a name and form, and its disappearance, like the setting sun.

“From Ignorance springs action: from action springs consciousness: from consciousness spring Name and Form: from Name and Form spring the senses: from the senses springs contact: from contact springs sensation: from sensation springs desire: from desire springs attachment : from attachment springs existence: from existence springs a continuation of births: from birth springs a train of unavoidable suffering such as old age, disease, death, grief, lamentation, dejection and despair. (In this manlier) Desire acts (and reacts) in a circle ceaselessly. By the destruction of Ignorance, action is destroyed: by the destruction of action consciousness is destroyed: by the destruction of consciousness, Name and Form are destroyed: by the destruction of Name and Form, the senses are destroyed: by the destruction of the senses contact is destroyed: by the destruction of contact sensation is destroyed: by the destruction of sensation desire is destroyed: by the destruction of desire, attachment is destroyed: by the destruction of attachment existence is destroyed: by the destruction of existence Birth is destroyed: by the destruction of Birth disease, old age, death, grief, lamentation, dejection, despair and the like endless suffering will be destroyed. In this manner salvation (is effected).”

“Ignorance and action, these two being the cause of the rest, form the first Khanda (or section); consciousness, Name and Form, the senses, contact and sensation being the (immediate) effect of the foregoing (section) form the second Khanda; Desire, Attachment and existence, being the evil result of sensation form the third Khanda; Birth as well as disease, old age, and death all of which follow birth, form the fourth Khanda:

“Action and consciousness form the first Link (sandhi). Sensation and desire, faultlessly understood, form, the second Link. From good and evil deeds (or existence) to proceed to births is the third Link.

“The three kinds of birth are as follows:— Birth with consciousness but without (external) form: Without consciousness but with form: with both consciousness and form: as human beings, gods, or beasts.

“The three (divisions of) time are :—the past which ought to be said to include (the stages of) ignorance and action: the present which may be described as including consciousness, name and form, the senses, contact, sensation, desire, attachment, existence and birth: the future which is said to include birth, disease, old age, death, grief, lamentation, dejection and despair. The defects are Desire, Attachment and Ignorance. Action and existence constitute our (good and evil) deeds.

“Consciousness, Name and Form, The senses, Contact, Sensation, Birth, Old-age, Disease, and Death are the natural Result (of our deeds).

“All sentient being who suffer by the above Defects, Deeds and Results are temporary. No being has an (immortal) soul. To understand thus (and realize these truths) is salvation.

“Consciousness, Name and Form, the Senses, Contact, Sensation, Birth, Disease, Old-age, Death, Grief, Lamentation, Dejection and Despair are (four) Distempers. The cause of these Distempers is Ignorance, Action, Desire, Attachment and Existence.

“Birth is painful; attachment is its cause: Release is joyful; absence of Attachment is its cause. These are the Four Truths.

“Form (or organised body), Sensation, Perception, Discrimination and Consciousness are the Five Aggregate (Skandhas).

“The six modes of expression may be explained as follows:- Words denote collection, continuance, excess of a quality and division; arid they are used to express what exists, what does not exist; a truth about what exists; an untruth about what does not exist; an untruth about what exists; or a truth about what does not exist. (Words such as) body, water, country, denote a collection. The (word) Paddy which is used for the grain, sprout, stalk, etc., of rice denotes a continuance (of phenomena). (The words) cessation, appearance and growth, denote the excess of quality, (in the successive stages of an object). When several letters are spoken of as a ‘word’ or several days are specified as a ‘month,’ it denotes Division. Sensation. is ‘what exists.’ A hare’s horn is ‘what does not exist.’ That consciousness is associated With mind is ‘a true statement about what exists.’ That the mind comes into existence like a flash of lightning is ‘an untrue statement about what exists.’ To speak of something as an effect without knowing the cause is a ‘true statement about what does not exist.’ To say that a hare’s horn is not seen because it does not exist, is ‘a truth about what does not exist.’

“There are four excellent faculties of the mind which perceive (i) Agreement (ii) Non-agreement, (iii) Non-action, and (iv) Action. To understand the connection of cause and effect in objects is to perceive agreement. To distinguish objects individually is to perceive non-agreement. To say that the mind cannot understand the primary cause which leads to effect in eternal and temporary objects is to perceive non-action. To say that the germ of rice springs out of the rice seed is perception of action.

“The four benefits are the knowledge that (i) the world is nothing but a concretion of objects, (ii) that attachment to them is not good, (iii) that there is no connection with a creator, (iv) that an effect springs from its immediate cause.

“Questions may be answered in four ways. (1) By a decided answer. (2) By answers in parts. (3) By a further question. (4) By silence.

“If it is asked ‘whether an object which comes into existence will disappear or not’; the decided answer would be that ‘it will disappear.’ If it is asked ‘whether a dead man will be born again,’ it should be answered ‘as he got rid of all attachment or not (implying thereby that he will not be born again if he has no attachment and that he will be re-born if he has any attachment). If it is asked ‘which is earlier, an egg or a palmyra palm?’ it should be asked in reply ‘which egg to which palm?’ if it is asked whether an aerial flower (an imaginary thing) is old or new, no answer need be given.^[4]

“There is no one competent to explain the first cause of Attachment and Release. (As far as we see) the immediate cause of all the objects above-mentioned is lust, anger and mental illusion. Lust should be got rid of by discerning (and realising) that (our body is) temporary, that it is suffering, is soul-less, and unclean. Feelings of love, compassion, and benevolence should be cultivated so that anger may be entirely suppressed.

"Listen earnestly (to the preaching of the doctrine), meditate upon it fervently, practise it zealously and realise its truth, so that all illusion may be thrown off. In the four ways (mentioned above) enlighten your mind.”

The most popular review, at present, of the philosophical systems of India is the Sarva-darsana-sangraha, the author of which was the great religious reformer Mahdwacharya. It was composed in the fourteenth century, when the Buddhist and Lokâyata faiths were almost extinct in India, and hence it mentions the names of the six systems as follows :—(i) Purva Mimansa, (ii) Uttara Mimansa or Vedanta, (iii) Sankhya, (iv) Yoga, (v) Nyaya, (vi) Vaiseshika. Oriental scholars in Europe following the Sarva-darsana-sangraha have treated Buddhism and Lokyâyatam as non-Hindu systems.^[5] But it will be seen from the foregoing summary quoted from the Mani-mékalai that the six systems of philosophy which were current in India in the early centuries of the Christian Era were the Lokyâyata, Bauddha, Sankhya, Nyaya, Vaiseshika and Mimansa. These were the original six systems of Hindu philosophy: and the Bauddha and Lokyâyata, far from being non-Hindu, formed two of the six Hindu systems. It is noteworthy however that in describing briefly the doctrines of each of the above systems, the Manimêkalai does not give any account of the Nyaya: but in its place it mentions the Ajivaka and Nigranta philosophies which were then evidently the representatives of the older Nyaya system. The Ajivàkas and Nigrantas appear to have been very numerous during the reign of the Magadha emperor Asoka as they are mentioned in his edicts.

The student of history will be doubtless surprised to find that all the phases of philosophic thought now current in Europe have their counterpart in the ancient philosophies of the Hindus. The Lokhâyata which asserts that life is a certain collocation of matter, that there is no soul nor a future existence, and that men tied not care for anything but their welfare in the present life, is identical with “the scientific creed” of the modern Materialist. The Bauddha which teaches that “there is no one competent to explain the First cause” and that “life is a continual suffering” combines the Agnosticism and Pessimism of the present day.. The Sankhya which assumes a material First cause, but recognises no intelligent creator, has many points in common with modern Atheism.. The Nyaya which holds that matter and soul and god are eternal is almost the same as recent Theism. The Vaiseshika which does not mention a god, but believes that the universe is made of eternal atoms, and an eternal all-pervading soul, is very much like Naturalism allied to the atomic theory. The Mimansa which contains very little of philosophic discussion but is a dogmatic assertion of the authority of the Vedas, may be compared to the philosophy, of the Christian church which believes in the Bible and claims to be the only “revealed religion.”

The specimen of Hindu Logic given above, from the Manimêkalai, shows that the study of Logic had received considerable attention among the learned classes of the Hindus., It was not however pursued as a distinct science, in the early period which I describe, but only as a method for the correct conduct of philosophical enquiry. The Hindu syllogism of five parts is more complete than the Aristotelian syllogism of three parts. Their manner of stating the Major Premise avoids the use of general propositions; for instead of stating, for example, that “all smoke is accompanied by fire” they say “wherever there is smoke there is fire.” The argument is directly from a particular case to another particular case, which is the most usual and natural method of reasoning.^[6] Hence there is no mention in their system of the various modes of syllogism, the discussion of which takes up a considerable portion of European treatises on Logic.

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1. Mani-mêkalai
2. The three qualities are (Sattra) goodness or purity (Rajas) passion or activity, (Tamas) darkness or solidity
3. The Mani-Mekalai explains further in detail Fallacious Assertion, Fallacious Reason and Fallacious Example.—I omit them however a their description is too technical to be interesting to the general reader. (XXIX. 143-473.)
4. “When Malunka asked the Buddha whether the existence of the world is eternal or not eternal, he made him no reply; but the reason of this was, that it was considered by the teacher as an inquiry that tended to o profit.” Malunka Sukka in Hardy’s Manual of Buddhism, p. 375.
5. Sir Momier William's Hinduism
6. English Logicians have quite recently adopted this view, It has been asserted by Mill, (system of Logic, Bk. II., Chap. iii.) and partially admitted by Mr. Fowler (Inductive Logic, pp. 13, 14) that we can argue directly from case to case. “Profeesor Bain has adopted the same view of reasoning. He thinks that Mill has extricated us from the deadlock of the syllogism and effected a total revolution in logic. He holds that reasoning from particulars to particulars is not only the usual, the most obvious and the most ready method, but that it is the type of reasoning which best discloses the real process.” (Deductive Logic, pp. 206, 208). “Doubtless” says Profeisor Jevons “this is the usual result of our reasoning, regard being had to degrees of probability.” (The Principles of Science, p. 227).