A Short History of Astronomy (1898)
A Short History
of
Astronomy
By ARTHUR BERRY, M.A.
FELLOW AND ASSISTANT TUTOR OF KING'S COLLEGE, CAMBRIDGE;
FELLOW OF UNIVERSITY COLLEGE, LONDON
LONDON
JOHN MURRAY, ALBEMARLE STREET
1898
University Extension Manuals,
Edited by Professor Knight.
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EDITOR'S PREFACE.
Volumes dealing with separate departments of Literature, Science, Art, and History have been assigned to representative literary men, to University Professors, or to Extension Lecturers connected with Oxford, Cambridge, London, or the Universities of Scotland and Ireland.
The Manuals are not intended for purposes of Elementary Education, but for students who have made some advance in the subject dealt with. The statement of details is meant to illustrate the working of general laws, and the development of principles; while the historical evolution of the subject dealt with is kept in view, along with its philosophical significance.
The remarkable success which has attended University Extension in Britain has been partly due to the combination of scientific treatment with popularity , and to the union of simplicity with thoroughness. This movement, however, can only reach those resident in the larger centres of population, while all over the country there are thoughtful persons who desire the same kind of teaching. It is for them also that this Series is designed. Its aim is to supply the general reader with the same kind of teaching as is given in the Lectures, and to reflect the spirit which has characterised the movement, viz. the combination of principles with facts, and of methods with results.
The Manuals are also intended to be contributions to the Literature of the Subjects with which they respectively deal, quite apart from University Extension; and some of them will be found to meet a general rather than a special want.
CONTENTS.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
v |
CHAPTER I.
Primitive Astronomy, §§ 1-18 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
1-20 |
§ 1. | Scope of astronomy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
1 |
§§ 2-5. | First notions: the motion of the sun : the motion and phases of the moon : daily motion of the stars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
1 |
§ 6. | Progress due to early civilised peoples : Egyptians, Chinese, Indians, and Chaldaeans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
3 |
§ 7. | The celestial sphere : its scientific value : apparent distance between the stars : the measurement of angles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
4 |
§§ 8-9. | The rotation of the celestial sphere : the North and South poles : the daily motion : the celestial equator : circumpolar stars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
7 |
§§ 10-11. | The annual motion of the sun : great circles : the ecliptic and its obliquity : the equinoxes and equinoctial points : the solstices and solstitial points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
8 |
§§ 12-13. | The constellations : the zodiac, signs of the zodiac, and zodiacal constellations : the first point of Aries(♈︎), and the first point of Libra (♎︎) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
12 |
§ 14. | The five planets : direct and retrograde motions : stationary points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
14 |
§ 15. | The order of nearness of the planets: occultations : superior and inferior planets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
15 |
§ 16. | Measurement of time : the day and its division into hours : the lunar month : the year : the week . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
17 |
§ 17. | Eclipses : the saros . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
19 |
§ 18. | The rise of Astrology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
20 |
CHAPTER II.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
21-75 |
§§ 19-20. | Astronomy up to the time of Aristotle. The Greek calendar : full and empty months : the octaeteris : Meton's cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
21 |
§ 21. | The Roman calendar: introduction of the Julian Calendar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
22 |
§ 22. | The Gregorian Calendar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
23 |
§ 23. | Early Greek speculative astronomy : Thales and Pythagoras : the spherical form of the earth : the celestial spheres : the music of the spheres . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
24 |
§ 24. | Philolaus and other Pythagoreans : early believers in the motion of the earth : Aristarchus and Seleucus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
25 |
§ 25. | Plato : uniform circular and spherical motions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
26 |
§ 26. | Eudoxus : representation of the celestial motions by combinations of spheres : description of the constellations. Callippus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
27 |
§§ 27-30. | Aristotle : his spheres : the phases of the moon : proofs that the earth is spherical : his arguments against the motion of the earth : relative distances of the celestial bodies : other speculations : estimate of his astronomical work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
29 |
§§ 31-2. | The early Alexandrine school : its rise : Aristarchus : his estimates of the distances of the sun and moon. Observations by Timocharis and Aristyllus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
34 |
§§ 33-4. | Development of spherics : the Phenomena of Euclid : the horizon, the zenith, poles of a great circle, verticals, declination circles, the meridian, celestial latitude and longitude, right ascension and declination. Sun-dials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
36 |
§ 35. | The division of the surface of the earth into zones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
37 |
§ 36. | Eratosthenes : his measurement of the earth : and of the obliquity of the ecliptic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
39 |
§ 37. | Hipparchus : his life and chief contributions to astronomy. Apollonius's representation of the celestial motions by means of circles. General account of the theory of eccentrics and epicycles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
40 |
§§ 38-39. | Hipparchus's representation of the motion of the sun, by means of an eccentric : apogee, perigee, line of apses, eccentricity : equation of the centre : the epicycle and the deferent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
41 |
§ 40. | Theory of the moon : lunation or synodic month and sidereal month : motion of the moon's nodes and apses : draconitic month and anomalistic month . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
47 |
§ 41. | Observations of planets : eclipse method of connecting the distances of the sun and moon : estimate of their distances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
49 |
§ 42. | His star catalogue. Discovery of the precession of the equinoxes : the tropical year and the sidereal year . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
51 |
§ 43. | Eclipses of the sun and moon : conjunction and opposition : partial, total, and annular eclipses : parallax . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
56 |
§ 44. | Delambre's estimate of Hipparchus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
61 |
§ 45. | The slow progress of astronomy after the time of Hipparchus : Pliny's proof that the earth is round : new measurements of the earth by Posidonius . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
61 |
§ 46. | Ptolemy. The Almagest and the Optics : theory of refraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
62 |
§ 47. | Account of the Almagest : Ptolemy's postulates : arguments against the motion of the earth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
63 |
§ 48. | The theory of the moon : evection and prosneusis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
65 |
§ 49. | The astrolabe. Parallax, and distances of the sun and moon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
67 |
§ 50. | The star catalogue : precession . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
68 |
§ 51. | Theory of the planets : the equant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
69 |
§ 52. | Estimate of Ptolemy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
73 |
§ 53. | The decay of ancient astronomy : Theon and Hypatia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
73 |
§ 54. | Summary and estimate of Greek astronomy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
74 |
CHAPTER III.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
76-91 |
§ 55. | The slow development of astronomy during this period . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
76 |
§ 56. | The East. The formation of an astronomical school at the court of the Caliphs : revival of astrology : translations from the Greek by Honein ben Ishak, Ishak ben Honein, Tabit ben Korra, and others . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
76 |
§§ 57-8. | The Bagdad observatory. Measurement of the earth. Corrections of the astronomical data of the Greeks : trepidation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
78 |
§ 59. | Albategnius : discovery of the motion of the sun's apogee . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
79 |
§ 60. | Abul Wafa : supposed discovery of the variation of the moon. Ibn Yunos : the Hakemite Tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
79 |
§ 61. | Development of astronomy in the Mahometan dominions in Morocco and Spain : Arzachel : the Toletan Tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
80 |
§ 62. | Nassir Eddin and his school : Ilkhanic Tables : more accurate value of precession . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
81 |
§ 63. | Tartar astronomy : Ulugh Begh : his star catalogue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
82 |
§ 64. | Estimate of oriental astronomy of this period : Arabic numerals: survivals of Arabic names of stars and astronomical terms : nadir . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
82 |
§ 65. | The West. General stagnation after the fall of the Roman Empire : Bede. Revival of learning at the court of Charlemagne : Alcuin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
83 |
§ 66. | Influence of Mahometan learning: Gerbert : translations from the Arabic : Plato of Tivoli, Athelard of Bath, Gherardo of Cremona. Alfonso X. and his school : the Alfonsine Tables and the Libros del Saber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
84 |
§ 67. | The schoolmen of the thirteenth century, Albertus Magnus, Cecco d'Ascoli, Roger Bacon. Sacrobosco's Sphaera Mundi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
85 |
§ 68. | Purbach and Regiomontanus : influence of the original Greek authors : the Nürnberg school : Walther : employment of printing : conflict between the views of Aristotle and of Ptolemy : the celestial spheres of the Middle Ages : the firmament and the primum mobile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
86 |
§ 69. | Lionardo da Vinci : earthshine . Fracastor and Apian : observations of comets. Nonius. Fernel's measurement of the earth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
90 |
CHAPTER IV.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
92-124 |
§ 70. | The Revival of Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
92 |
§§ 71-4. | Life of Coppernicus : growth of his ideas : publication of the Commentariolus : Rheticus and the Prima Narratio : publication of the De Revolutionibus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
93 |
§ 75. | The central idea in the work of Coppernicus : relation to earlier writers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
99 |
§§ 76-9. | The De Revolutionibus. The first book : the postulates : the principle of relative motion, with applications to the apparent annual motion of the sun, and to the daily motion of the celestial sphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
100 |
§ 80. | The two motions of the earth : answers to objections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
105 |
§ 81. | The motion of the planets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
106 |
§ 82. | The seasons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
108 |
§ 83. | End of first book. The second book : decrease in the obliquity of the ecliptic : the star catalogue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
110 |
§ 84. | The third book : precession . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
110 |
§ 85. | The third book : the annual motion of the earth : aphelion and perihelion. The fourth book : theory of the moon : distances of the sun and moon : eclipses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
111 |
§§ 86-7. | The fifth and sixth books : theory of the planets : synodic and sidereal periods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
112 |
§ 88. | Explanation of the stationary points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
118 |
§§ 89-90. | Detailed theory of the planets : defects of the theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
121 |
§ 91. | Coppernicus's use of epicycles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
122 |
§ 92. | A difficulty in his system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
123 |
CHAPTER V.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
125-144 |
§§ 93-4. | The first reception of the De Revolutionibus : Reinhold : the Prussian Tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
125 |
§ 95. | Coppernicanism in England : Field, Recorde, Digges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
127 |
§ 96. | Difficulties in the Coppernican system : the need for progress in dynamics and for fresh observations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
127 |
§§ 97-8. | The Cassel Observatory : the Landgrave William IV., Rothmann, and Bürgi : the star catalogue : Bürgi's invention of the pendulum clock . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
128 |
§ 99. | Tycho Brahe : his early life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
130 |
§ 100. | The new star of 1572 : travels in Germany . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
131 |
§§ 101-2. | His establishment in Hveen : Uraniborg and Stjerneborg : life and work in Hveen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
132 |
§ 103. | The comet of 1577, and others . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
135 |
§ 104. | Books on the new star and on the comet of 1577 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
136 |
§ 105. | Tycho's system of the world : quarrel with Reymers Bär . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
136 |
§ 106. | Last years at Hveen : breach with the King . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
138 |
§ 107. | Publication of the Astronomiae Instauratae Mechanica and of the star catalogue : invitation from the Emperor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
139 |
§ 108. | Life at Benatek : co-operation of Kepler : death . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
140 |
§ 109. | Fate of Tycho's instruments and observations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
141 |
§ 110. | Estimate of Tycho's work : the accuracy of his observations : improvements in the art of observing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
141 |
§ 111. | Improved values of astronomical constants. Theory of the moon : the variation and the annual equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
143 |
§ 112. | The star catalogue : rejection of trepidation : unfinished work on the planets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
144 |
CHAPTER VI.
Galilei (from 1564 a.d. to 1642 a.d.), §§ 113-134 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
145-178 |
§ 113. | Early life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
145 |
§ 114. | The pendulum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
146 |
§ 115. | Diversion from medicine to mathematics : his first book . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
146 |
§ 116. | Professorship at Pisa : experiments on falling bodies : protests against the principle of authority . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
147 |
§ 117. | Professorship at Padua : adoption of Coppernican views . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
148 |
§ 118. | The telescopic discoveries. Invention of the telescope by Lippersheim : its application to astronomy by Harriot, Simon Marius, and Galilei . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
149 |
§ 119. | The Sidereus Nuncius : observations of the moon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
150 |
§ 120. | New stars : resolution of portions of the Milky Way . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
151 |
§ 121. | The discovery of Jupiter's satellites : their importance for the Coppernican controversy : controversies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
151 |
§ 122. | Appointment at the Tuscan court . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
153 |
§ 123. | Observations of Saturn. Discovery of the phases of Venus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
154 |
§ 124. | Observations of sun-spots by Fabricius, Harriot, Scheiner, and Galilei : the Macchie Solari : proof that the spots were not planets : observations of the umbra and penumbra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
154 |
§ 125. | Quarrel with Scheiner and the Jesuits : theological controversies : Letter to the Grand Duchess Christine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
157 |
§ 126. | Visit to Rome. The first condemnation : prohibition of Coppernican books . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
159 |
§ 127. | Method for finding longitude. Controversy on comets : Il Saggiatore . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
160 |
§ 128. | Dialogue on the Two Chief Systems of the World. Its preparation and publication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
162 |
§ 129. | The speakers : argument for the Coppernican system based on the telescopic discoveries : discussion of stellar parallax : the differential method of parallax . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
163 |
§ 130. | Dynamical arguments in favour of the motion of the earth : the First Law of Motion. The tides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
165 |
§ 131. | The trial and condemnation. The thinly veiled Coppernicanism of the Dialogue : the remarkable preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
168 |
§ 132. | Summons to Rome : trial by the Inquisition : condemnation, abjuration, and punishment : prohibition of the Dialogue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
169 |
§ 133. | Last years: life at Arcetri : libration of the moon : the Two New Sciences : uniform acceleration, and the first law of motion. Blindness and death . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
172 |
§ 134. | Estimate of Galilei's work : his scientific method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
176 |
CHAPTER VII.
Kepler (from 1571 a.d. to 1630 a.d.), §§ 135-151 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
179-197 |
§ 135. | Early life and theological studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
179 |
§ 136. | Lectureship on mathematics at Gratz : astronomical studies and speculations : the Mysterium Cosmographicum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
180 |
§ 137. | Religious troubles in Styria : work with Tycho . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
181 |
§ 138. | Appointment by the Emperor Rudolph as successor to Tycho : writings on the new star of 1604 and on Optics : theory of refraction and a new form of telescope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
182 |
§ 139. | Study of the motion of Mars : unsuccessful attempts to explain it . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
183 |
§§ 140-1. | The ellipse : discovery of the first two of Kepler's Laws for the case of Mars : the Commentaries on Mars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
184 |
§ 142. | Suggested extension of Kepler's Laws to the other planets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
186 |
§ 143. | Abdication and death of Rudolph : appointment at Linz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
188 |
§ 144. | The Harmony of the World : discovery of Kepler's Third Law : the "music of the spheres" . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
188 |
§ 145. | Epitome of the Copernican Astronomy : its prohibition : fanciful correction of the distance of the sun : observation of the sun's corona . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
191 |
§ 146. | Treatise on Comets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
193 |
§ 147. | Religious troubles at Linz : removal to Ulm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
194 |
§ 148. | The Rudolphine Tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
194 |
§ 149. | Work under Wallenstein : death . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
195 |
§ 150. | Minor discoveries : speculations on gravity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
195 |
§ 151. | Estimate of Kepler's work and intellectual character . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
197 |
CHAPTER VIII.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
198-209 |
§ 152. | The general character of astronomical progress during the period . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
198 |
§ 153. | Scheiner's observations of faculae on the sun. Hevel : his Selenographia and his writings on comets : his star catalogue. Riccioli's New Almagest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
198 |
§ 154. | Planetary observations : Huygens's discovery of a satellite of Saturn and of its ring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
199 |
§ 155. | Gascoigne's and Aouzout's invention of the micrometer : Picard's telescopic "sights" . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
202 |
§ 156. | Horrocks : extension of Kepler's theory to the moon : observation of a transit of Venus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
202 |
§§ 157-8. | Huygens's rediscovery of the pendulum clock : his theory of circular motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
203 |
§ 159. | Measurements of the earth by Snell, Norwood, and Picard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
204 |
§ 160. | The Paris Observatory : Domenico Cassini : his discoveries of four new satellites of Saturn : his other work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
204 |
§ 161. | Richer's expedition to Cayenne : pendulum observations : observations of Mars in opposition : horizontal parallax : annual or stellar parallax . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
205 |
§ 162. | Roemer and the velocity of light . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
208 |
§ 163. | Descartes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
208 |
CHAPTER IX.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
210-246 |
§ 164. | Division of Newton's life into three periods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
210 |
§ 165. | Early life, 1643 to 1665 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
210 |
§ 166. | Great productive period, 1665-87 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
211 |
§ 167. | Chief divisions of his work : astronomy, optics, pure mathematics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
211 |
§ 168. | Optical discoveries : the reflecting telescopes of Gregory and Newton : the spectrum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
211 |
§ 169. | Newton's description of his discoveries in 1665-6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
212 |
§ 170. | The beginning of his work on gravitation : the falling apple : previous contributions to the subject by Kepler, Borelli, and Huygens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
213 |
§ 171. | The problem of circular motion : acceleration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
214 |
§ 172. | The law of the inverse square obtained from Kepler's Third Law for the planetary orbits, treated as circles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
215 |
§ 173. | Extension of the earth's gravity as far as the moon : imperfection of the theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
217 |
§ 174. | Hooke's and Wren's speculations on the planetary motions and on gravity. Newton's second calculation of the motion of the moon : agreement with observation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
221 |
§ 175-6. | Solution of the problem of elliptic motion : Halley's visit to Newton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
221 |
§ 177. | Presentation to the Royal Society of the tract De Motu : publication of the Principia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
222 |
§ 178. | The Principia : its divisions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
223 |
§§ 179-80. | The Laws of Motion: the First Law: acceleration in its general form : mass and force : the Third Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
223 |
§ 181. | Law of universal gravitation enunciated . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
227 |
§ 182. | The attraction of a sphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
228 |
§ 183. | The general problem of accounting for the motions of the solar system by means of gravitation and the Laws of Motion: perturbations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
229 |
§ 184. | Newton's lunar theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
230 |
§ 185. | Measurement of the mass of a planet by means of its attraction of its satellites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
231 |
§ 186. | Motion of the sun : centre of gravity of the solar system : relativity of motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
231 |
§ 187. | The non-spherical form of the earth, and of Jupiter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
233 |
§ 188. | Explanation of precession . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
234 |
§ 189. | The tides : the mass of the moon deduced from tidal observations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
235 |
§ 190. | The motions of comets : parabolic orbits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
237 |
§ 191. | Reception of the Principia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
239 |
§ 192. | Third period of Newton's life, 1687-1727 : Parliamentary career : improvement of the lunar theory : appointments at the Mint and removal to London : publication of the Optics and of the second and third editions of the Principia, edited by Cotes and Pemberton : death . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
240 |
§ 193. | Estimates of Newton's work by Leibniz, by Lagrange, and by himself . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
241 |
§ 194. | Comparison of his astronomical work with that of his predecessors : "explanation" and "description" : conception of the material universe as made up of bodies attracting one another according to certain laws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
242 |
§ 195. | Newton's, scientific method : "Hypotheses non fingo" . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
245 |
CHAPTER X.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
247-286 |
§ 196. | Gravitational astronomy : its development due almost entirely to Continental astronomers : use of analysis : English observational astronomy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
247 |
§§ 197-8. | Flamsteed : foundation of the Greenwich Observatory : his star catalogue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
249 |
§ 199. | Halley : catalogue of Southern stars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
253 |
§ 200. | Halley's comet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
253 |
§ 201. | Secular acceleration of the moon's mean motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
254 |
§ 202. | Transits of Venus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
254 |
§ 203. | Proper motions of the fixed stars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
255 |
§§ 204-5. | Lunar and planetary tables : career at Greenwich : minor work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
255 |
§ 206. | Bradley : career . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
257 |
§§ 207-11. | Discovery and explanation of aberration : the constant of aberration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
258 |
§ 212. | Failure to detect parallax . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
265 |
§§ 213-5. | Discovery of nutation : Machin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
265 |
§§ 216-7. | Tables of Jupiter's satellites by Bradley and by Wargentin : determination of longitudes, and other work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
269 |
§§ 216-7. | Tables of Jupiter's satellites by Bradley and by Wargentin : determination of longitudes, and other work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
269 |
§ 218. | His observations : reduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
271 |
§ 219. | The density of the earth : Maskelyne : the Cavendish experiment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
273 |
§ 220. | The Cassini-Maraldi school in France . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
275 |
§ 221. | Measurements of the earth : the Lapland and Peruvian arcs : Maupertuis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
275 |
§§ 222-4. | Lacaille : his career : expedition to the Cape : star catalogues, and other work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
279 |
§§ 225-6. | Tobias Mayer : his observations : lunar tables : the longitude prize . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
282 |
§ 227. | The transits of Venus in 1761 and 1769 : distance of the sun . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
284 |
CHAPTER XI.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
287-322 |
§ 228. | Newton's problem : the problem of three bodies : methods of approximation: lunar theory and planetary theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
287 |
§ 229. | The progress of Newtonian principles in France : popularisation by Voltaire. The five great mathematical astronomers : the pre-eminence of France . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
290 |
§ 230. | Euler : his career : St. Petersburg and Berlin : extent of his writings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
291 |
§ 231. | Clairaut : figure of the earth : return of Halley's comet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
293 |
§ 232. | D'Alembert : his dynamics : precession and nutation : his versatility : rivalry with Clairaut . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
295 |
§§ 233-4. | The lunar theories and lunar tables of Euler, Clairaut, and D'Alembert : advance on Newton's lunar theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
297 |
§ 235. | Planetary theory : Clairaut's determination of the masses of the moon and of Venus : Lalande . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
299 |
§ 236. | Euler's planetary theory : method of the variation of elements or parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
301 |
§ 237. | Lagrange : his career : Berlin and Paris : the Mecanique Analytique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
304 |
§ 238. | Laplace : his career : the Mecanique Céleste and the Système du Monde : political appointments and distinctions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
306 |
§ 239. | Advance made by Lagrange and Laplace on the work of their immediate predecessors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
308 |
§ 240. | Explanation of the moon's secular acceleration by Laplace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
308 |
§ 241. | Laplace's lunar theory : tables of Bürg and Burckhardt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
309 |
§ 242. | Periodic and secular inequalities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
310 |
§ 243. | Explanation of the mutual perturbation of Jupiter and Saturn : long inequalities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
312 |
§§ 244-5. | Theorems on the stability of the solar system : the eccentricity fund and the inclination fund . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
313 |
§ 246. | The magnitudes of some of the secular inequalities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
318 |
§ 247. | Periodical inequalities : solar and planetary tables based on the Mécanique Celeste . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
318 |
§ 248. | Minor problems of gravitational astronomy : the satellites : Saturn's ring: precession and nutation : figure of the earth : tides : comets : masses of planets and satellites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
318 |
§ 249. | The solution of Newton's problem by the astronomers of the eighteenth century . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
319 |
§ 250. | The nebular hypothesis : its speculative character . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
320 |
CHAPTER XII.
Herschel (from 1738 a.d. to 1822 a.d.), §§ 251-271 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
323-353 |
§§ 251-2. | William Herschel's early career : Bath : his first telescope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
323 |
§§ 253-4. | The discovery of the planet Uranus, and its consequences : Herschel's removal to Slough . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
325 |
§ 255. | Telescope-making : marriage : the forty-foot telescope : discoveries of satellites of Saturn and of Uranus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
327 |
§ 256. | Life and work at Slough : last years : Caroline Herschel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
328 |
§ 257. | Herschel's astronomical programme : the study of the fixed stars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
330 |
§ 258. | The distribution of the stars in space : star gauging : the "grindstone" theory of the universe : defects of the fundamental assumption : its partial withdrawal. Employment of brightness as a test of nearness : measurement of brightness : "space-penetrating" power of a telescope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
332 |
§ 259. | Nebulae and star clusters : Herschel's great catalogues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
336 |
§ 260. | Relation of nebulae to star clusters: the "island universe" theory of nebulae : the "shining fluid" theory : distribution of nebulae . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
337 |
§ 261. | Condensation of nebulae into clusters and stars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
339 |
§ 262. | The irresolvability of the Milky Way . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
340 |
§ 263. | Double stars : their proposed employment for finding parallax : catalogues : probable connection between members of a pair . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
341 |
§ 264. | Discoveries of the revolution of double stars : binary stars : their uselessness for parallax . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
343 |
§ 265. | The motion of the sun in space : the various positions suggested for the apex . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
344 |
§ 266. | Variable stars : Mira and Algol : catalogues of comparative brightness : method of sequences : variability of α Herculis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
346 |
§ 267. | Herschel's work on the solar system : new satellites : observations of Saturn, Jupiter, Venus, and Mars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
348 |
§ 268. | Observations of the sun : Wilson : theory of the structure of the sun . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
350 |
§ 269. | Suggested variability of the sun . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
351 |
§ 270. | Other researches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
352 |
§ 271. | Comparison of Herschel with his contemporaries : Schroeter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
352 |
CHAPTER XIII.
The Nineteenth Century, §§ 272-320 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
354-409 |
§ 272. | The three chief divisions of astronomy, observational, gravitational, and descriptive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
354 |
§ 273. | The great growth of descriptive astronomy in the nineteenth century . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
355 |
§ 274. | Observational Astronomy. Instrumental advances : the introduction of photography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
357 |
§ 275. | The method of least squares : Legendre and Gauss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
357 |
§ 276. | Other work by Gauss : the Theoria Motus : rediscovery of the minor planet Ceres . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
358 |
§ 277. | Bessel : his improvement in methods of reduction : his table of refraction : the Fundamenta Nova and Tabulae Regiomontanae . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
359 |
§ 278. | The parallax of 61 Cygni : its distance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
360 |
§ 279. | Henderson's parallax of α Centauri and Struve's of Vega : later parallax determinations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
362 |
§ 280. | Star catalogues : the photographic chart . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
362 |
§§ 281-4. | The distance of the sun : transits of Venus : observations of Mars and of the minor planets in opposition : diurnal method : gravitational methods, lunar and planetary : methods based on the velocity of light : summary of results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
363 |
§ 285. | Variation in latitude : rigidity of the earth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
367 |
§ 286. | Gravitational Astronomy. Lunar theory : Damoiseau, Poisson, Pontécoulant, Lubbock, Hansen, Delaunay, Professor Newcomb, Adams, Dr. Hill . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
367 |
§ 287. | Secular acceleration of the moon's mean motion : Adams's correction of Laplace : Delaunay's explanation by means of tidal friction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
369 |
§ 288. | Planetary theory : Leverrier, Gyldén, M. Poincare . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
370 |
§ 289. | The discovery of Neptune by Leverrier and Dr. Galle : Adams's work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
371 |
§ 290. | Lunar and planetary tables : outstanding discrepancies between theory and observation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
372 |
§ 291. | Cometary orbits : return of Halley's comet in 1835 : Encke's and other periodic comets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
372 |
§ 292. | Theory of tides : analysis of tidal observations by Lubbock, Whewell, Lord Kelvin, and Professor Darwin : bodily tides in the earth and its rigidity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
373 |
§ 293. | The stability of the solar system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
374 |
§ 294. | Descriptive Astronomy. Discovery of the minor planets or asteroids : their number, distribution, and size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
376 |
§ 295. | Discoveries of satellites of Neptune, Saturn, Uranus, Mars, and Jupiter, and of the crape ring of Saturn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
380 |
§ 296. | The surface of the moon : rills : the lunar atmosphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
382 |
§ 297. | The surfaces of Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn : the canals on Mars : Maxwell's theory of Saturn's rings : the rotation of Mercury and of Venus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
383 |
§ 298. | The surface of the sun : Schwabe's discovery of the periodicity of sun-spots : connection between sun-spots and terrestrial magnetism : Carrington's observations of the motion and distribution of spots : Wilson's theory of spots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
385 |
§§ 299-300. | Spectrum analysis : Newton, Wollaston, Fraunhofer, Kirchhoff : the chemistry of the sun . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
386 |
§ 301. | Eclipses of the sun : the corona, chromosphere, and prominences : spectroscopic methods of observation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
389 |
§ 302. | Spectroscopic method of determining motion to or from the observer : Dopplers principle : application to the sun . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
391 |
§ 303. | The constitution of the sun . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
392 |
§§ 304-305. | Observations of comets : nucleus : theory of the formation of their tails : their spectra : relation between comets and meteors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
393 |
§§ 306-308. | Sidereal astronomy : career of John Herschel : his catalogues of nebulae and of double stars : the expedition to the Cape : measurement of the sun's heat by Herschel and by Pouillet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
396 |
§ 309. | Double stars : observations by Struve and others : orbits of binary stars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
398 |
§ 310. | Lord Rosse's telescopes: his observations of nebulae : revival of the "island universe" theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
400 |
§ 311. | Application of the spectroscope to nebulae : distinction between nebulae and clusters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
401 |
§ 312. | Spectroscopic classification of stars by Secchi : chemistry of stars : stars with bright-line spectra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
401 |
§§ 313-314. | Motion of stars in the line of sight. Discovery of binary stars by the spectroscope : eclipse theory of variable stars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
402 |
§ 315. | Observations of variable stars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
403 |
§ 316. | Stellar photometry : Pogson's light ratio : the Oxford, Harvard, and Potsdam photometries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
403 |
§ 317. | Structure of the sidereal system : relations of stars and nebulae . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
405 |
§§ 318-20. | Laplace's nebular hypothesis in the light of later discoveries : the sun's heat : Helmholtz's shrinkage theory. Influence of tidal friction on the development of the solar system : Professor Darwin's theory of the birth of the moon. Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
406 |
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411 |
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417 |
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425 |
This work is in the public domain in the United States because it was published before January 1, 1929.
The longest-living author of this work died in 1929, so this work is in the public domain in countries and areas where the copyright term is the author's life plus 94 years or less. This work may be in the public domain in countries and areas with longer native copyright terms that apply the rule of the shorter term to foreign works.
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