The New Student's Reference Work/Nature-Study with the Camera

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Nature-Study

The New Student's Reference Work

Nature-Study with the Camera

Naugatuck, Conn.

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2629602The New Student's Reference Work — Nature-Study with the Camera

Nature-Study with the Camera. Since the perfection of modern photographic apparatus, — the hand-camera with its quick shutters, rapid dry-plates and films, — the hunting of wild life with a camera has become a fascinating recreation. Even in sporting circles there is a call to substitute the camera for the gun as the sportsman's weapon. Forest and Stream, arguing for such a change, says: “Every camera hunter must admit that more immediate and lasting pleasure is afforded in raking a running deer from stem to stern at twenty yards with his 5 x 7 bore camera than in driving an ounce ball through its heart at 100 yards. Then think of the unlimited freedom of this noiseless weapon. No closed season, no restriction in numbers or methods of transportation, no posted land; but you can pull on a swimming deer or an elk floundering in the snow, take a crack at a spotted fawn, bag the bird on its nest or string your cameras out like traps, with a thread across the runway, and gather in the exposed, game-laden plates at nightfall without any scruples about being called a pot-hunter or a game-hog.” In introducing a book of wild life illustrated with the camera President Roosevelt wrote: “The older I grow, the less I care to shoot anything but ‘varmints.’ If we can only get the camera in place of the gun and have the sportsman sunk somewhat in the naturalist and the lover of wild things, the next generation will see an immense change for the better in the life of our woods and waters.”

But this use of the camera has proved of distinct value in aid of nature-study, providing the means of gaining a clear and intimate knowledge of wild animals, birds and reptiles, their appearance, their haunts, their habits and all the phases and conditions of their life. Moreover, the young are thus enabled to become direct observers and students of animated nature; for not only have naturalists, as Chapman, and camera-hunters, as Dugmore and Wallihan, brought from the Rockies, from the forests and waters of Canada and from the shores and everglades of Florida the trophies of their skill and patience in a wealth of photographic pictures of every variety of wild animal, running, climbing or feeding, and of birds and wild fowl in flight or at rest, but amateurs, even schoolboys and girls have become expert in securing photographs of the more familiar birds and animals to be found in field and forest accessible to every village and town. With the development of habits of close observation, quick perception and careful analysis required in this delightful pursuit, the love of nature is begotten, and the career of a naturalist is often determined then and there. Teachers who lead their classes to field and wood will find the camera a most interesting and helpful adjunct to these excursions. Stalking a bird, a rabbit, a squirrel or a gopher, while simple and tame to the expert, is to the school boy an experience full of interest. Soon he will come to note in what surroundings the bird or animal is found, what it is doing, if feeding what sort of food it is eating, the place and character of its nest or burrow. The pictures when developed recall these details and fix them in the mind, and the boy thus becomes possessed of a fund of valuable information obtained at first hand. With increased experience these excursions may take wider range. The mature lad will give zest to his vacations by becoming a hunter of wild life with camera and flashlight.

The pictures which follow give suggestions of the thrilling experiences and show the splendid rewards which come to the man who hunts with a camera.

OPOSSUM

PRAIRIE DOG

MUSKRAT

GOPHER

WEASEL

WOODCHUCK OR GROUND HOG

MOLE

SKUNK CROSSING A STREAM

CHIPMUNK

RACCOON

SQUIRREL

MINK

RED FOX

COYOTE

OPOSSUM, SHOWING YOUNG AT THE MOUTH OF THE POUCH

OPOSSUM, SHOWING YOUNG ON THE MOTHER'S BACK

“PLAYING ‘POSSUM.’ ” THIS ANIMAL IS ALIVE

Courtesy of Doubleday, Page & Co.

SPIDER WATCHING FOR PREY

WHITE-FOOTED MOUSE AND YOUNG—By A. R. Dugmore

MR. DUGMORE RAN A MILE TO RESTORE THE MOTHER TO HER CHILDREN, SHE HAVING RUN INTO HIS POCKET WHEN FRIGHTENED, AND BEING FOUND THERE LATER

⁠Courtesy of Doubleday, Page & Co.

Courtesy of Doubleday, Page & Co.

DEER TAKEN BY FLASHLIGHT

Nau′gatuck, Conn., a town in New Haven

County, on Naugatuck River, five miles south of Waterbury and 15 northwest of New Haven. It is served by the New York, New Haven and Hartford Railroad. Its manufactories receive their water-power largely from the river, and include rubber and woolen goods factories, buttons, factories for the manufacture of chemicals, paper boxes and iron and brass foundries. Population 12,722.

SECTION OF
NAUTILUS

Nautilus (na̤′tĭ-lŭs), a mollusk having a chambered shell and belonging to the class Cephalopoda. It is the sole living representative of one order of that class, possessing four gills, while the other cephalopods have only two. Its shell is not uncommon on the shores of warm seas, but the animal is not often found inhabiting the shell. It creeps about the bottom, and the floating shell is the result of storms. It is called both pearly nautilus and chambered nautilus. The former name comes from the pearly appearance of the innermost layer of the shell, the latter from the circumstance that the spiral shell is divided into a set of chambers. The animal lives in the outermost one. When very young, it lives in a small shell shaped like a horn. As it grows, it draws the body forward, secretes a pearly partition just back of it, and adds to the margin of the opening of the shell; this is repeated, and a set of chambers results. The animal has a plump body connected with the apex of the shell by a sort of cord, which passes through the center of each partition wall. There are large eyes. The head is surrounded by a number of arms or tentacles, which do not possess suckers like the squid or devilfish, to which the nautilus is related. The paper nautilus or argonaut is sometimes confused with the true nautilus. It, however, belongs to another division of the cephalopods, having only two gills. The shell of this animal is secreted by the female only, as a case or cradle for the eggs, and is not a shell to protect the animal. In geological times there were huge chambered shells inhabited by animals like the nautilus. These shells were straight instead of being coiled, and are well known under the name orthoceratites. See Woodward's Manual of the Mollusca and Holmes' poem of The Chambered Nautilus.

Navajo (nä′vä-hō) Indians, a tribe of American Indians belonging to the Athabascan or Tinney stock. They call themselves Yutahenne. They occupy a fine reservation in Arizona and New Mexico, and are civilized in a good degree. They carry on farming, though their utensils are mostly hoes and primitive implements, such as sharp sticks. Their leading crops are corn, beans, melons, pumpkins and wheat, and they have orchards of peaches and apricots. Their reserve includes 5,468,160 acres of land. They number about 17,000. While not given to fighting, they have much spirit in defending their rights. There is a school on their reservation, but the Indians do not compel their children to attend it. The houses are rude booths or huts built of sticks, sods or bushes. As they never enter a house where a person has died, when a death occurs, the corpse is buried by pulling out the prop-sticks and letting the sods and sticks fall on it. The Navajos are strong and well-built, and are expert horsemen and herders.

Na′val Acad′emy of the United States, The, a school for the training of naval cadets under the supervision and control of the government, was founded by Federal authority in 1845, Geo. Bancroft the historian, then secretary of the navy, having planned and established it, and opened for the reception of students in October of that year. It is at Annapolis, Md., on Severn River, and occupies the site of old Fort Severn. Previous to this date there had been a school for the training of midshipmen in connection with the Naval Asylum at Philadelphia, Pa. Commander Franklin Buchanan was the first superintendent. The institution was reorganized in 1850 and in 1851, important changes taking place at each of these dates. The grounds with the buildings occupy 50 acres, while outside the walls 100 acres additional belong to the park. Two students, known as midshipmen, are allowed for each senator, representative and delegate in Congress; two for the District of Columbia; and five each year from the United States at large; and one from Porto Rico, who must be a native of the island. The midshipmen from the District of Columbia and the country at large are appointed by the president, and the one from Porto Rico upon the recommendation of its governor. Candidates are required to pass an examination (after appointment) as to physical soundness, knowledge of spelling, grammar, geography, history of the United States, arithmetic and algebra as far as equations of the first degree. They must be between 16 and 20 and be unmarried. Midshipmen are allowed an annual honorarium of $500. If admitted, they must make a deposit of $200 to cover the cost of personal outfit; but their expenses of travel from their homes to Annapolis are refunded, and they receive $500 a year, subsistence, clothing and certain other expenses being, however, required of them. The course has been changed several times, but, as it now stands, all cadets must pass four years at the academy and two at sea. During the first three years cadets are instructed in English studies, history, French, Spanish or German, algebra, geometry, trigonometry, astronomy, physics, chemistry mechanical drawing and navigation. The studies of the fourth year are varied according to the special line of duty to which the cadet devotes himself, as naval construction, gunnery, infantry tactics, international law etc. The academy has 102 instructors and about 750 students. The library contains 50,000 volumes. The government has recently spent $15,000,000 for improvements at the Naval Academy. These consist of several massive practice-halls, a magnificent memorial chapel, modern living quarters and fine roadways and terraces. The body of John Paul Jones, brought to America from Paris in 1905, is interred in the chapel.

Naval Observ′atory of the United States, The, an institution of the Federal government, is located at Georgetown, District of Columbia, under the superintendence of the bureau of navigation. It was established in 1842, and then called the Depot for Naval Charts and Instruments. The Nautical Almanac, issued yearly, is compiled at this place. The present equipment of this observatory is probably surpassed by no other in the world for the performance of the important functions intrusted to it.

Naval Reserve. In all the more important countries, in addition to the regular naval forces serving continuously with the fleet, there are others who are drilled and instructed in order to be able to supplement the regular naval forces in time of war. In times of peace these men are largely employed in the merchant marine, yachts, auxiliary government service, or are pensioners. The reserves of the French, German and Italian navies are derived chiefly from honorably discharged men who have served the required term of enlistment, but others, as fishermen, merchant sailors and those pursuing such other callings as afford experience useful in the war fleet, are employed. The naval reserve force of France numbered in 1906 about 114,000, more than 25,000 of whom were serving with the fleet; and the German naval reserve force numbered 110,000. The Russian naval reserve force is somewhat similarly derived, but contains a greater proportion of untrained men unfamiliar with nautical life. The British naval reserve force is made up of the Royal naval reserve, the Royal fleet reserve and pensioners. The United States has no national naval reserve force, but has what is called a Naval Militia, which in a way answers the same purpose. There have been frequent efforts to secure the necessary legislation for the establishment of a regular naval reserve, and the Naval Militia is the chief result of these efforts. In 1887 a bill was introduced in Congress "to create a naval reserve of auxiliary cruisers, officers and men from the merchant marines of the United States," but it was not passed. In the same year the Navy Department prepared a plan of organization for a naval militia. In May of 1888 the legislature of Massachusetts provided by enactment for the establishment of a naval battalion to be attached to the state volunteer militia. In the same year Pennsylvania and Rhode Island and in June of 1889 New York followed with similar legislation. The Massachusetts naval battalion was drilled on board the receiving ship Wabash and the New York battalion on the receiving ship Minnesota. Nothing more was done until March 2, 1891, when Congress appropriated $25,000 for arms and equipment of naval militia. A few weeks later California created by legislative enactment a naval battalion, and North Carolina with executive sanction and Texas by order of the governor did likewise. Ten other states and the District of Columbia have since made similar provisions. Now naval militia are organized in 16 states and the District of Columbia with 474 commissioned officers and 5,275 enlisted men, involving an annual expenditure by the national government of about $75,000. All matters relating to the naval militia come under the cognizance of the Assistant Secretary of the Navy, who transacts all business relative thereto through the governors and adjutant-generals of the states.

Navarino (nä′vȧ-rē′nō̇ ) (officially Pylos), is a town of 2,000 inhabitants on the southwest coast of the Morea, in Greece and the best harbor in Greece. In 425 B. C. the great battle between the Athenians and the Spartans, in which the Spartans were defeated, occurred in the bay; and on October 20, 1827, the combined British, French and Russian fleets annihilated the Turkish and Egyptian navies at the same place.

Navarro, Mary A. See Anderson, Mary.

Nav′iga″tion is the art of sailing a ship from port to port. There are two methods of determining the situation of a ship at sea. One consists in finding the latitude and longitude by astronomical observations; the other in noting the ship's direction and the distance traveled each day and in computing by trigonometry the position of the ship. In the latter method the two instruments used are the mariner's compass to determine the direction and the log-line to determine the rate of travel. Winds and currents and variations of the compass needle render this method untrustworthy. The most accurate method of determining the position is by astronomical observations. Every ship is provided with at least one accurate chronometer. Then, by noting accurately the time when the sun reaches its highest altitude, the true noon is found, and from difference in time as noted from the chronometer the longitude can be calculated. Similarly, the latitude may be calculated by observation with the sextant of the sun's altitude in the heavens at noon. When the sun is obscured at noon, other astronomical methods are resorted to as observations at other hours and on other heavenly bodies. No one method is ever relied on solely, but every observation possible is made to check up others. Currents and temperatures of the sea are observed, depths are noted by the lead, and when land is approached lighthouses and lightships are carefully watched for.

Navigation Laws, such as interfered with American shipping during the colonial period and such as the United States herself laid down for shipping subsequent to the Declaration of Independence, denote a policy of interference in trade, manufactures etc., which received its first serious challenge from the Wealth of Nations of Adam Smith. As early as 1381 England had begun her policy of insisting that merchandise to and from the kingdom should be carried only in English ships. This prohibition was not effective. The English parliament, however, enacted a similar law in 1645, which under Charles II was replaced by the Act of 1651, legally known as the first navigation act. The second navigation act (1663) had special reference to colonial trade, which was expected to benefit English shipping only. By this act, therefore, all colonial produce for export must be landed in an English port. Yet there were many evasions of the navigation acts, especially by American shipping. The Spanish navigation laws were even more stringent than the British laws; they were summed up in the policy of treating foreign vessels found in Spanish waters as pirates.

The United States constitution in 1789 included a provision that Congress might make such navigation laws as it pleased. Strict acts, favoring American shipping by imposing tonnage on foreign vessels, were passed in 1789 and 1792. A system of mutual concessions, however, began with England after the war of 1812. England repealed her navigation acts in 1824; and America passed more liberal laws in 1884, so that vessels owned only in part in America may now fly the American flag. Tonnage rates were reduced in the United States in 1886. The act of 1884 established a bureau of navigation, subject to the oversight of the treasury department.

Na′vy. The navy of any county is its fighting force on the sea, and bears the same relation thereto as does the army as a land-force. The ancient method of naval warfare was in great part the practice of driving a beaked vessel against another with great force. This survives to the present day in the use of rams. The ancient boats were propelled with force and precision by oars, arranged in one, two or three tiers and manned by either standing or sitting sailors. A three-banked vessel was called a trireme. The Persians, Carthaginians, Phoenicians and Greeks are known to have had such fleets as early as the 7th century B.C.

The modern navy dates from the 16th century, when, in 1588, the English fleet destroyed the Spanish Armada, and by slow steps in conquering the French and Dutch became the foremost maritime power of the world. The first naval ship to be protected by iron was launched at Toulon in 1859 and named La Gloire. From this were patterned the subsequent armor-clad vessels, with improvements from time to time. The construction of the American navy dates from the war of independence, and in 1812 and 1814 it proved a worthy foe of England on the seas. Thereafter it was in a measure neglected until the Civil War, when the construction of the armored Monitor changed the type of the warships of the future. Since 1887 a new navy has been built. In place of the old wooden vessels it is composed of powerful steel steamers, capable of high speed and mounted with batteries of powerful modern guns. The fleet comprises the battleships, which practically are floating forts, heavily armored but capable of high speed; the cruisers, less heavily armored but of greater speed; the double-turreted monitors for harbor defense, single-turreted monitors, gunboats, torpedo-boats, torpedo-boat destroyers and submarines, besides transports, supply ships, hospital ships and colliers. The effective navy of the United States in 1910 consisted of 29 battleships, besides 11 second class battleships and coast defense ships, 10 monitors, 39 cruisers, 34 gunboats, 32 torpedo boats, 8 submarines and 23 torpedo-boat destroyers, in addition to a number, in the different classes, in the shipyards under construction. The most formidable battleships are of the Delaware type, having a displacement of 20,000 tons, a speed of 22 knots, and armed with 10 twelve-inch and 14 five-inch guns.

The Secretary of the Navy, in his annual report, Dec. 1, 1910, made the following statement of the relative efficiency of the principal nations of the world:

AT PRESENT

Nation.	Tonnage.
Great Britain	1,633,116
United States	611,616
France	609,079
Germany	529,032
Japan	374,701
Russia	232,943
Italy	207,623

WHEN VESSELS NOW BUILDING ARE COMPLETED

Nation.	Tonnage.
Great Britain	1,821,610
France	836,112
United States	771,758
Germany	680,602
Japan	451,320
Russia	320,040
Italy	288,433

The Secretary made the following comments: It is true that our Navy at the present time is the second in efficiency. Our position, however, is largely due to the fact that during the last fiscal year our sea strength and fighting efficiency have been increased by the completion and delivery of a number of new battleships and cruisers of the largest and most approved type, but we will not maintain this position very long unless Congress shall authorize the building of additional ships. It is of the highest importance that old and practically obsolete ships shall be replaced by ships of the newest type. It is pretty generally conceded that the battleship is the fighting machine, and it is also pretty generally conceded that the most effective battleship is the all-big-gun ship of the Delaware type. As compared with other naval powers, we are deficient in destroyers and submarines, and also in colliers.

The expenditure on the naval establishment of the United States for the year 1911 was nearly $130,000,000. This sum includes expenditures for the construction and armament of battleships and other vessels authorized by Congress besides disbursements in the maintenance of the fleet and the national defense. In 1910 the navy numbered 2,921 officers and 45,076 enlisted men; the marine corps 334 officers and 9,152 men. The pay of naval officers is as follows: Admiral $13,500 per year; rear-admirals, first nine $8,000; second nine $6,000; captains $4,000; commanders $3,500; lieutenant-commanders $3,000; lieutenants $2,400; ensigns $1,700; midshipmen at sea $1,400; petty officers and chief petty officers get from $33 to $77 per month; first class seamen $26; ordinary seamen $21; firemen $33 to $35. The term of enlistment in the United States navy is four years.

The cruise around the world of the American fleet of 16 battleships, which occurred in 1908, was perhaps the most notable feat in naval annals. Leaving Norfolk on Dec. 16, 1907, the fleet sailed around South America, visited the chief ports of that continent and arrived at San Francisco without mishap and in condition ready for any service. Proceeding on its itinerary it visited Hawaii, the Philippines, Australia and Japan, and returned by way of the Suez Canal and the Mediterranean. This wonderful cruise attracted the attention of the world; the fleet was welcomed and féted by every nation it visited; and the efficiency of ships, officers and crews was fully demonstrated by this long and severe test. See J. W. King's Warships and Navies of the World; Lieut. F. H. Vesey's (U. S. N.) Navies of the World; and Mahan on Sea Power.

Naz′areth, the Galilean home of Jesus, is a small and flourishing town in Palestine. It is built partly on rocky ridges in a hilly country. It is not mentioned in the Old Testament, and in the early part of the Christian era was almost forgotten, the first pilgrimage to it taking place in the 6th century. The town contains a Latin convent, built on the supposed scene of the annunciation, while the Greeks have also built a commemorative chapel. There also are a Latin chapel, supposedly built over the workshop of Joseph, and a temple of the Table of Christ, containing the table from which the twelve apostles ate the last supper. The Virgin's well is just outside the town limits. The place has long been famed for the beauty of its women. The population is estimated at from 8,000 to 10,000.

Ne′bo, Mount, the highest point of the range of mountains east of Jordan, in Moab. It was from its summit that Moses had his “Pisgah view” of Palestine. An ancient rude altar, probably as old as the time of the Amorites, was discovered here by Captain Conder in 1881.

Nebras′ka, one of the northern central states of the Union, situated between South Dakota on the north, Iowa and Missouri on the east, Kansas and Colorado on the south and Colorado and Wyoming on the west. Its extreme length is 205 miles, its extreme breadth 415; entire area 77,510 square miles; capital, Lincoln (population 43,973), its other chief cities being Omaha (124,096) and South Omaha (26,259). The population in 1910 was 1,192,214.

Surface and Climate. The state, which is a prairie one, is without any great eleavtions, though in the north and west the surface is diversified by hills. Its chief waterways are the Platte or Nebraska River, which courses across the state from west to east, and the Missouri River, which flanks it on the east and forms part of its northeastern boundary. The soil is rich and fertile, with a dry climate, the rainfall being light; so much so as to necessitate the resort to irrigation in the western part of the state. In the absence of humidity there is little extreme of either heat or cold.

Natural Resources. The state is preeminently an agricultural one, raising the chief cereals, including corn, wheat, oats, rye and barley, besides hay and potatoes. The farmland area is about 39,000,000 acres, the acreage in 1909 in the following crops being corn, 7,266,000 acres; wheat, 2,662,000 acres; oats, 2,365,000 acres; hay and forage, 4,520,000 acres. There is now considerable stock-raising, with an increasing number of dairy-cows and other cattle, horses, sheep and swine. The mineral deposits are poor or are as yet undeveloped, except such limestone as is quarried for building purposes, brick and tile product and clay. Fruit-growing is being developed.

Manufactures. The lack of fuel, either of coal or timber, has been a drawback to manufacturing. The leading industry is slaughtering and meat-packing, with a product value, in 1909, of close upon $93,000,000. South Omaha is the chief seat of this industry. The manufacture of malt liquors, cheese, butter, condensed milk and flour and grist-mill product is important, as is the yield from the brick and tile works, lumber and planing mills, railroad cars, saddlery and harness shops. There is, moreover, a large and growing printing and publishing trade.

Commerce and Transportation. Nebraska has 175 national banks, with a capital of about $12,000,000 and about $65,000,000 of deposits. There are 6,067 miles of railway, chiefly in the southeast. The chief lines are the Chicago and Northwestern, Rock Island, Union Pacific, Burlington and Missouri River and Fremont, Elkhorn and Missouri Valley roads.

Education and Charities. Educationally the state makes a good showing, though it has no state board of education, for it has an exceedingly low percentage of illiterates. In 1910 there was a total school enrolment of 278,936, with an average daily attendance of 192,454 pupils and 11,099 teachers. Of high schools there were 285, with an aggregate attendance of 18,000. The expenditure on the schools was $7,454,215, over $4,560,000 being for teachers’ salaries. The institutions for higher learning include the University of Nebraska, at Lincoln, with 262 instructors and 3,992 students; Cotner University, at Bethany, with 50 instructors and 350 students; Bellevue College (Presbyterian with 16 instructors and 170 students; Doane College (Congregational), at Crete, with 19 instructors and 210 students; and Nebraska Wesley an University, at University Place, with 43 instructors and 937 students. Besides these collegiate institutions the state maintains asylums for the insane, feebleminded etc. at Lincoln, Norfolk, Hastings and Beatrice; an institute for the blind at Nebraska City; one for the deaf and dumb at Omaha; besides state soldiers’ and sailors’ homes at Milford and Grand Island.

History. Originally the present state, which dates from 1867, formed part of the Louisiana Purchase, and in 1804 it was organized as the District and Territory of Louisiana, eight years later becoming known as Missouri Territory. In the 18th century fur-traders ascended the Platte; in 1804–06 the Lewis and Clark expedition visited the region; and later commerce was begun by fur-traders with the Indians and a settlement was formed in 1805 at Bellevue. In 1821 Fort Atkinson was built, and in 1825–26 Omaha and Nebraska were settled. During 1840—50 the district was visited by Mormons, traders and travellers, as well as by American troops on their way to New Mexico and by gold-seekers in 1849–50 en route for California. It remained unorganized, however, until 1854, when it became a territory under the provisions of the Kansas-Nebraska bill, and after various vicissitudes it was admitted as a state, its area being limited by giving portions of it to form Colorado, Idaho and Dakota, and a constitution was formulated in 1866.

Nebraska City, Neb., the capital of Otoe County, lies on the west bank of the Missouri, 74 miles below Omaha. It is the seat of Nebraska College, the state institute for the blind, and the Academy of the Annunciation; it possesses a grain elevator and several manufactories, chief among them being flour and lumber mills, a cannery, a starch factory, distillery, foundries, machineshops and cereal mills. It has a public library, government and county buildings and well-organized public and parochial schools. Population 5,488.

Nebraska, University of, located at Lincoln, the capital of the state, is a part of its public-school system. It was founded by act of legislature in 1869, and is supported, chiefly by a state tax, together with income from land sales and leases under Act of Congress of 1862, the annual revenue being about $270,000. It comprises the following colleges and schools: graduate school, colleges of literature, science and arts, industrial college, college of law, school of fine arts, affiliated school of music. The faculty numbers 173 with 2,914 students in attendance, exclusive of the summer and preparatory schools. E. Benjamin Andrews, LL.D., is chancellor.

Nebuchadrezzar (neb′ u-kad-rĕz′ zar), the most illustrious of Babylonian kings, was the son of Nabopolassar, the general of the Babylonian garrison at the time the Assyrian empire fell to pieces after the death of Assur-bani-pal. The Babylonians then threw off the hated yoke of Assyria, and Nabopolassar was proclaimed king of Babylonia in 625 B. C. Nebuchadrezzar succeeded him in 604, reigning 43 years, and was one of the greatest sovereigns who ever ruled over an ancient empire. He recovered the long-lost provinces, rebuilt palaces and temples as well as the city of Babylon, and captured and destroyed Jerusalem, taking the Jews into captivity. (The Assyrians had previously taken the 10 northern tribes into captivity.) It is an astonishing fact that not a single mound has been opened by explorers in Babylonia, which did not contain bricks, cylinders and tablets inscribed with his name.

Nebulæ (nĕb′ ū́-lḗ), are celestial bodies resembling, in appearance, small patches of white cloud. Hence the name, which is merely the Latin word for small cloud. Many thousands of these nebulæ have been measured and catalogued, but with the exception of two or three all are invisible to the naked eye. Until 1864 — five years after the invention of the spectroscope by Kirchhoff and Bunsen — nebulæ were considered to be very distant star-clusters, or clusters made up of stars so small as not to be resolvable by any existing telescope. But Sir William Huggins then examined a number of nebulæ with the spectroscope and found that they are not stars, but bodies composed of luminous gas, giving a spectrum of six or seven bright lines. Two of these lines are fairly bright and are due, as has been proved by

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Keeler at Lick Observatory, to a substance not yet discovered on the earth. The brightest of all nebulas is the one in the girdle of Andromeda; the one in the sword-handle of Orion can also be seen at times by the naked eye. Planetary nebulæ are those which show a more or less well-defined disc. It is not impossible that nebulæ are merely stars in their early stages of development, later to pass through the phases of planetary nebulæ and nebulous stars. See Schemer’s Astronomical Spectroscopy, translated by Frost.

Neb′ular Hypoth′esis is a theory advanced by three different men, Swedenborg (1688–1772), Kant (1724–1804) and Laplace (1749–1827), to account for the observed facts of planetary motion. The more important phenomena to be accounted for are these: (1) The orbits of all the planets are nearly circular and lie all nearly in one plane. (2) The direction of revolution about the sun is the same for all planets. (3) Except in the case of Uranus and Neptune, the direction of rotation of the planet on its axis is the same as its direction of revolution. (4) The larger planets rotate (not revolve) more rapidly. (5) The plane of rotation is not very different from the plane of the orbit. (6) The satellites generally have a direction of revolution which coincides with that of the planet’s rotation. To explain this rather orderly state of affairs it was supposed that the matter now constituting this solar system was at some earlier date in its existence distributed in the form of an immense nebula; and that, as this nebula condensed and therefore increased its rate of rotation (while preserving a constant moment of momentum), the centrifugal force became so great that some of the outer portions of the nebula were set free. That is, the centrifugal force reached a point where it balanced the attraction of the rest of the nebula. The portions thus set free, whether as a ring or as a “hump,” condensed still farther and formed the earlier planets. As the concentration of the original nebula proceeded, the rate of rotation kept on increasing and again “threw off” or set free other planets. So also with the planets themselves; as they became more and more compact, their rate of rotation increased sufficiently for them to set free their satellites.

In a general way this hypothesis satisfactorily explains the six facts enumerated above. With later modifications it explains even many of the anomalies of the solar system. See Laplace. For recent criticism of this hypothesis see article by Moulton in Astrophystcal Journal, Vol. II. (1900).

Neck′ar, a river in Germany, flowing through Württemberg and Baden; it is one of the largest tributaries of the Rhine, rises on the eastern slope of the Black Forest, and pursues a winding course for 250 miles until it enters the Rhine at Mannheim. It is navigable for about half its lower length. Tübingen, Heidelberg, Heilbronn and Cannstatt are on its banks.

Neck′er, Jacques, a financier and minister of France, was born at Geneva, Sept. 30, 1732. At 15 he went to Paris as a bank-clerk, and in 1762 founded the London and Paris Bank of Thellusson and Necker. He entered public life as a syndic of the French East India Company and minister of the republic of Geneva at Paris, and about this time married. In 1773 he received the French Academy prize for a eulogy on Colbert, and won great recognition by his Essai sur le Commerce des Grains in 1775. This was an answer to the free-trade arguments of Turgot. After having loaned some money to the government, he was made director of the treasury in 1776 and director-general of finance in 1777. For five years he labored to improve the financial condition of France by readjusting the taxes, establishing state-guaranteed annuities and the present system of government pawnshops. His methods displeased the queen, however, and his publication of the Compte Rendu, a statement of the financial condition of France, in 1781, was made the cause of his dismissal. He thereupon withdrew to Geneva, but returned in 1787 and defended his Compte Rendu, for which he was banished from Paris. He was recalled to his office in September, 1788, but, while winning popularity through recommending the summoning of the states-general, he proved wholly incompetent during the storms of the Revolution. He declined the aid of Lafayette and Mirabeau, and on July 11, 1789, was ordered to leave France, but after the fall of the Bastille, three days later, he was recalled, only to resign voluntarily in September, 1790. He retired to his estate near Geneva, and died there on April 9, 1804. See The Private Life of M. Necker by Madame de Stael, his famous daughter.

Nec′tar, the name given by most of the Greek and Roman poets to the drink of the gods. Homer describes it as of a red color, and says that continued use of it was supposed to insure immortality. The sprinkling with nectar was supposed to confer perpetual youth, and it was used, in figure of speech, as meaning everything delightful and pleasant to the taste.

Nee′dle. The sewing-needle must be one of the oldest implements used by man. Bone needles with eyes are found in the reindeer caves of France, and on the sites of the prehistoric lake dwellings of central Europe have been found many “eyed” needles of bone and of bronze, but only one of iron. Ancient bronze

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needles, 3½ inches long, have been found in Egypt, and there are surgeon’s needles and thimbles which have been used in sewing, with ordinary needles recovered from Pompeii in the Naples Museum. Savage races use needles of various materials, as bone, ivory, wood and metal.

Steel needles were first made in Nuremberg in 1370, but the manufacture was not of much importance until about 1650. The early made needles were all square-eyed. Redditch, near Birmingham, is the seat of the needle manufacture in Great Britain, and great improvements have been made by the use of automatic machines and other new mechanical appliances. There are about 22 processes now used in the making of needles. First, fine steel wire is cut into double lengths; these are raised to a dull-red heat and placed in loose bundles inside iron rings, to be straightened by rolling each bundle backward and forward on a face plate with a slightly curved bar (Fig. 1), through which the rings project. Next the wires are pointed at both ends and then stamped in the middle, so as to produce the flat part of the eyes and the mark for the holes (Fig. 2); two oval holes are then punched by a vertical, belt-driven, punching-machine. After being eyed the double needles, joined at the heads by thin fins, are “spitted” through their eyes on two wires flattened at one end so as to retain them. The burr made by the punch and die is now filed away, and after being broken in two between the heads and filed smooth, a row of single needles is left on each spit, as shown in Fig. 3. Next they are tempered by heating and dipping in oil, then polished, cleaned and sorted. It is estimated that 50,000,000 needles are made weekly in the Redditch district.

Nee′dle-Gun. See Rifle.

Ne′gro, The Education of the. The first negroes were landed in the United States at Jamestown in 1619. Within less than a century from that date there were over 50,000 here and by 1819 there were more than 1,500,000. There now are about 10,000,000. The education of these people, according to the common meaning of the term, was begun only with their emancipation from slavery. The sudden emancipation of the negro was followed by a state bordering upon chaos, and it took a long time for things to adjust themselves to the new conditions. Both the whites and the negroes were all at sea.

The whites knew the negro only as a slave and themselves as their masters. The negro knew only to serve. Both were ill-prepared to adjust themselves to the new relation. It is not surprising that the negro went the full sweep of the pendulum. Emancipation from slavery meant to many emancipation from labor. Manual labor, the only kind for which the negro was prepared, was considered degrading; and it is not too much to say that influences were present that tended to confirm him in this idea. Following the emancipation, schools were established in great numbers. Missionary societies became active. Armies of teachers were rushed down from the north. The United States army exercised its usual zeal in furthering the work. The Rev. John Eaton, afterwards United States Commissioner of Education, was placed by General Grant in charge of the instruction for the emancipated race. Within five years after the close of the war more than $5,000,000 was expended by these organizations for educational purposes. On May 20, 1865, the Freedmen’s Bureau was established by the national government, and Major-General O. O. Howard was made commissioner in charge. During the five years of its operation it made a total expenditure of more than $6,000,000, the larger portion for educational purposes. Over against all this enthusiasm on the part of the northern educator was the silent though persistent distrust on the part of the southern whites. They looked upon the negro as being fit only for manual labor and questioned the advisability of any attempt to train him along academic lines. The northern enthusiast was anxious to show them that the negro was as capable to learn as the whites. In the midst of it all it can not be considered strange that the tendency on the part of the negro was to discount the worth of industrial skill and to place an over-valuation on academic learning. Great harm as well as great good followed these methods. On the one hand, a great many negroes were led to consider themselves too good for manual labor as soon as they received a little learning, and on the other many were found who showed themselves capable of becoming good and efncient teachers and preachers, doctors and lawyers as well, and the wisdom and economy of providing schools with teachers of their own race was suggested. During the decade ending in 1878 more than 25 normal schools and collegiate institutes under control of different religious denominations were founded. These schools sent out many well-trained and efficient teachers. Unfortunately, however, these schools seemed to encourage rather than eradicate the negro’s well-developed notion that manual labor was degrading and that the way of escape was by study along academic lines. Latin and Greek occupied a prominent place in

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the curriculum; the literary and academic side was too much emphasized; and little or no attention was given to the practical side. For this these schools have been severely criticized. But each year is giving to these institutions, as to the colleges of the north, curricula which have more vital connection with the life the student is to live. In this direction no single influence has been so potent as that of Hampton Institute (q. v.), founded in 1868 by General Samuel Chapman Armstrong (q. v.). Its fundamental work has been the training of teachers, and industrial training was incorporated at the beginning and has continued a dominant factor. From Hampton sprang Tuskegee Institute (q. v.),a larger institution of the same kind, founded in 1881 by Booker T. Washington (q. v.). It would be difficult to overestimate the importance of these two institutions and the value of the services of their two honored founders in the development of the education of the negro. In the secondary and higher schools for negroes, not including public schools, in the former 16 slave-states and the District of Columbia there were 20,972 pupils in 1904–5 receiving industrial training in farm-work, carpentry, sewing, cooking and other branches, while the total enrollment in these institutions was 42,889. The total value of the grounds, buildings, furniture and scientific apparatus was $11,102,283. A vast amount of money has been contributed by northern philanthropists to the support of these institutions, although an income of about $250,000 was derived in 1904-5 from tuition alone. These contributions, which began to pour into these states before the battle-drums had ceased and continue to the present day, now aggregate nearly $50,000,000. It was 1870 before much was undertaken in the way of establishing free public schools, but since that date rapid progress has been made. Separate schools for negroes are maintained in all of these states, with an enrollment in 1904–5 of 1,602,194 in the elementary schools and 50,251 in the higher schools and an average daily attendance of more than 60 per cent. of the enrollment. This was larger than the enrollment of both the whites and negroes in 1876–7. The number of teachers aggregated about 29,000. Although separate schools have been maintained, separate accounts have not been kept. But for 1904–5 the sum of $46,401,832 was expended for the support of common schools for both whites and negroes, and according to very careful estimates 20 per cent, of the total or about $9,000,000 was expended for the support of the schools for negroes, about as much as was expended for schools for negroes and whites in 1870. This growth and development has been gradual though rapid, and augurs well for the future. In the public schools, also, more and more emphasis is being placed on the side of industrial training, and the life the pupil is to live is receiving greater attention.

Ne′groes, a name given to most of the races inhabiting Africa, though it does not include all the inhabitants. The inhabitants of northern Africa, as the Abyssinians or Nubians, and the Hottentots of the south do not belong to the negro race. The physical characteristics of the true negro are black skin, woolly hair, flat nose and thick lips. Their skin is soft, and in the infant is a dull red, becoming black very soon. The negroes of the Guinea coast, who are rude savages, have a deep-black color and ugly features. Other tribes of the interior are tall, well-formed and warlike, and have some ingenuity in making implements from iron. The skull is long and narrow, with low forehead, prominent jaws and retreating chin. As a rule they are of a low order of intelligence, mechanical in their work but capable of great endurance. They are of a less nervous disposition than whites, more frequently color-blind, have smaller lungs and larger livers. The negro has long been a prey to the slave-traffic, being captured in large numbers and sold as slaves in other countries. The first slaves were brought to the United States in 1619, and this traffic was not discontinued until 1794, when it was prohibited by act of congress. The Spaniards began the trade, and King James and Queen Elizabeth both issued patents to companies. Between 1794 and 1840 the trade was confined mostly from the African coast to the West Indies and Brazil. The coast of Guinea was the largest slave-market, but inasmuch as they sold none of their own people but relied on those captured in war or by strategem, most of the slaves sent to the United States were of the pure negro type of the interior; while most of those taken to Brazil and the West Indies were closely allied to the Kafir and Zulu stock of the eastern coast. The mortality among the negroes is greater than the whites, attributed in the south much to the fact of their low condition and inattention to the laws of health, in the north to their inability to withstand the cold and variable weather, as the diseases from which they suffer are mostly those of the respiratory organs. Therefore the publication, at frequent intervals, of accounts of long-lived negroes may be ascribed to the ignorance of their ages, and not to any exceptional tenacity of life.

In disposition the negro, as a rule, is cheerful and peaceable, unconcerned for the future, inclined to live in colonies and of emotionally religious instincts. Common among them even to the present day is the exercise of a certain form of witchcraft, called voodooism, prosecuted by means of charms, philters and fetiches.

The African negroes are quite ingenious in weaving mats and cloth and in making baskets from grasses; in constructing their huts;

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Nehemiah
Nelson
Nelson River
Nelson, Horatio office of affection. His last words, before his

soul drifted out to the great unknown, were: “Kiss me, Hardy!”

The flagship brought the news of the victory home, but its flags were at half-mast. England's bravest and best-beloved hero was laid away in St. Paul's, London, under a splendid monument. In 1905 the centennial of Trafalgar was made a Nelson year throughout the empire. In the press and in public addresses he was never spoken of as Lord Nelson the admiral, but as “Our Nel.” Tennyson, in his Ode on The Death of the Duke of Wellington, addressed Nelson as the “greatest seaman since our world began,” saying, as Wellington was laid beside Nelson: “Mighty sailor, this is he was great by land as thou by sea.” See Life of Nelson by Robert Southey the poet.

Nem′esis, said by Hesiod to be the daughter of Night, was at first the embodiment of righteous moral feelings or of the conscience. Later, Nemesis was regarded as the power which balanced the fortunes of people and taught them to reverence the immortal gods. From this was evolved the latest conception, that of the avenger of wrong. She was at first represented as a young virgin, and later as clothed in a tunic, sometimes with sword in hand and a wheel at her feet, or in a chariot drawn by griffins. Several fragments of Pheidias’ statue of Nemesis were discovered in 1890, in the famous temple of Nemesis at Rhamnus, Africa.

Ne′on. See Argon.

Nep′tune, the Roman god of the sea, was like all the other gods of mythology, merely a name. This was derived from Nethunus, the sea-god of the Etruscans. He is also identified with the Greek sea-god Poseidon. The figure of a bearded man standing in a shell drawn over the sea and holding a three-pronged spear or trident is his usual pictorial representation.

Nep′tune. See Planets.

Nerbud′da or Narba′da, an Indian river of about 800 miles, with a drainage of 36,400 square miles, rises on the Amorkantak plateau, 3,493 feet above sea-level, and flows west through the central provinces and the great channel between the Vindhya and Satpura Mountains into the Gulf of Cambay. It is navigable for only about 80 miles from its mouth. The Hindus consider it a sacred river and look upon a foot-journey from mouth to source and back as a meritorious act.

Ne′ro, the last of the Cæsars and emperor of Rome from 54 to 68 A. D., was born at Antium, Dec. 15, 37. His mother became the wife of the Emperor Claudius, who adopted him, and on the emperor's death he was declared emperor by the Prætorian Guards instead of Claudius' own son, and this choice was ratified by the senate and provinces in 54. His reign, although opening well and moderately, soon became one of crime, debauchery and tyranny. He caused Britannicus, Claudius' son, to be poisoned, brought about the murder of his own mother, and finally divorced and murdered his wife. All this was accompanied by wars and insurrections,—in 61 A. D. an uprising in Britain, which was suppressed, and in 62 the war with the Parthians and Armenia. In 64 a great fire destroyed nearly two thirds of Rome, and historians say that Nero applied the torch and sat far away admiring the scene. Nero used the Christians as scapegoats, and had many of them put to death. Through the high-handed imposition of taxes he rebuilt Rome and erected the “golden house” for himself on the Palatine. A conspiracy against him in 65 failed and caused the death of Seneca and others. He kicked his second wife to death and afterward offered his hand to Antonia, the daughter of Claudius, who, upon refusing him, was put to death, as was also the husband of Statilia Messalina, whom he thereupon married. His inordinate vanity caused him to believe that he was everything brilliant, as is witnessed by his last words: “What an artist is lost in me!” In 68 the Prætorian Guards rose against him and, in conjunction with the Gallic and Spanish legions, proclaimed Galba emperor. Nero fled from Rome, was declared an enemy of his country, and to save himself from execution committed suicide. See W. Wolfe Capes' Early Roman Empire and Merivale's History of the Romans under the Empire.

Nerves, the fibers of white nervous matter connecting the different parts of the body with the central nervous system. Two kinds of nervous tissue are recognized,— the white and gray. The white is composed of fibers, the gray is largely made of nerve cells located in centers. The nerves are merely conductors of the nervous impulses that arise within the nerve-cells. Nerves make their first appearance in the animal kingdom among the jellyfish as parts of the primitive nervous system. They at first are strands of protoplasm connected with the nerve-cells from which they grow. They become associated in bundles, bound together by connective tissue, and thus form the white cords that run amongst the muscles and other parts of the body. In the human body there are twelve pairs of cranial nerves connected with the head and thirty-one pairs of spinal nerves connected with the spinal cord. Those of the head are much more complex than those of the spinal cord, but are believed to be derived from a simpler condition in which they were equivalent to them. They are now so much modified that it is difficult to understand them. The thirty-one pairs of spinal nerves come from two roots closely joined to the spinal cord. These are called sensory and motor roots, respectively, because those at the back contain sensory fibers and those in front motor

BIRD HOUSES MADE BY MANUAL TRAINING CLASS, PUBLIC SCHOOLS, PORTLAND, OREGON fibers. Recent observations have established a great law in reference to the development of nerves, viz., the sensory fibers arise outside and grow into the central nervous system, motor fibers start within the central nervous system and grow outward. This applies even to the highest developed sensory nerves. For example, the fibers of the optic nerve begin in the retina of the eye and grow toward the brain, instead of starting in the brain and growing outward to the eye. Besides sensory and motor fibers there are those that regulate the nutrition and the tone of organs, called trophic nerves; those that carry impulses which stimulate secretion, called secretory nerves; and some others. The twelve pairs of cranial nerves are as follows: The first pair connected with smell; the second pair with sight; the third, fourth and sixth pairs with muscles that move the eyeball; the fifth pair with the teeth, tongue and face; the seventh pair the muscles of the face, the eighth pair the ears; the ninth pair the tongue, as nerves of taste, and with the muscles of the pharynx. The tenth pair (pneumogastric) are very important and widely distributed, going to the heart, lungs, stomach and intestines. The eleventh pair supply certain muscles in the neck; and the twelfth pair form the muscles of the tongue. Besides all these, there are nerves belonging to the sympathetic nervous system. The object of nerves is to connect the different parts of the body with the controlling nervous system. They are simply conductors and not originators of nervous impulses.

Nesting-Boxes. Birds may be attracted about the home by putting up nesting-boxes. If new material can not be had, use waste or worn materials, for birds apparently prefer rusty metal or weather-beaten lumber. When I was a boy, I once secured four
HOLLOW-LIMB BOX old shingles and a piece of board, made a rough box with hatchet and saw, and put it up in a tree. Many a pair of bluebirds nested there. Such a shingle-box may be put against the side of a building or on a tall pole or tree-trunk where cats can not easily climb. Better nail a shingle or some thin board flat on the top, and have it project on every side. If the board projects well out over the entrance, it will prevent the rain
BARK BOX from driving in as well as make the roof rainproof. When hollow limbs are pruned from a tree, cut them into sections, and roof, bore and mount them. (See first illustration.) A handsome as well as durable box may be made of bark. It must be made late in June, when the bark peels readily. It is made by peeling off both the outer and the inner bark. Then saw a slice off each end of the stick for the bottom and the top, tack the bark on the
BLUEBIRDS' BOX ends, nail on the supporting stick, and finally, in order to make the top watertight, cover it with green bark. (See second cut.) These small boxes are suitable for the chickadee. Chestnut-bark makes strong boxes, that can be covered or roofed with zinc, for larger birds. An objection to many bird-houses is that they are not cat-proof. But a very deep box, without a perch, but with an overhanging cover or roof and with the entrance well up under the eaves, makes access difficult for the cat. The ordinary bird-house for martins or tree-swallows must stand on a tall, slim pole, these birds preferring to be 15 to 30 feet above the
SLIDING-COVER BOX ground. Be sure not to make the entrance near the floor. Make a platform round the box, and rail the platform up at least three inches. Regulate the size and shape of bird-boxes by the shape and habits of the different birds. It is better to make them comfortably large than too small. The size of the entrance is most important. One and seven-eighths inches diameter will do for wrens; one and one-fourth for martins; three and one-half for flickers and screech-owls. Both bluebirds and tree-swallows have been known to nest in boxes hung from a wire. Provide every small nesting-box with a sliding cover, or a door, through which you can remove the contents. All the boxes I have mentioned, except shingle and bark boxes, provide for this, and these too can easily be made to open. See the box shown in picture four. The door extends halfway down the front, and is attached to a narrow cover which overlaps part of the top of the box. For those who wish to study the habits of birds the observation-box (see cut) is almost perfect. One side is furnished with a pane of glass, and a door shuts over the glass. The door is kept closed most of the time till the young are hatched. Then it can be kept open to notice their ways, but the sun must not shine on it, for it might kill them. The box can be mounted on a short board projecting from the window-sill. The door is hinged at the bottom by a piece of leather, and opens toward the window.

Nes′tor, the great counselor of the Greeks, was born in Messenian Pylos, the son of Neleus and Chloris, and became the husband of Eurydice. In his youth he fought valiantly against the Arcadians, Epeans and Centaurs, and in old age was famed for wisdom. He joined the war against Troy with sixty ships, and, although an old man, remained through the war, returning to Pylos at its close and ruling until his death.

Nestor′ians, a sect formed in the 5th century by the followers of Nestorius, patriarch of Constantinople in 428 A. D., deposed in 431 because of his peculiar views as to the divine and human nature of Christ. After it was driven out of the Roman empire, the sect extended into Persia, India and even China. In Asia Minor, under Bishop Babæus of Seleucia (498-503) and his successor, the Nestorians grew rapidly and produced many learned theologians, philosophers and physicians, as Hippocrates and Galen. Under the rule of the caliphs the Nestorians enjoyed toleration, and spread in Arabia, Syria and Palestine. The Prester John of romance was a Christian of this color, and tradition has it that Mohammed learned what he knew of Christianity from a Nestorian monk. The sect reached the height of its prosperity in the middle of the 13th century, but after the persecutions of Tamerlane they dwindled away. They now are a poor and illiterate race numbering less than 150,000. Their chief seat is in Persia and in the mountains of Kurdistan.

Neth′erlands. See Holland.

Net′tle, species of Urtica, a genus containing about 30 species widely distributed. The best known nettle is U. dioica, known as the stinging nettle, which is a native of Europe and Asia, but has become extensively naturalized in the United States. It is densely beset with stinging hairs. At the base of each hair is a small gland secreting a poisonous fluid. It grows from two to three feet high and is common in waste places.

Neuchâtel or Neufchâtel (nẽ′shȧ′tĕl′), the chief town of the canton of Neuchâtel in Switzerland, is situated on the northwestern shore of the Lake of Neuchâtel, about 85 miles from Geneva, and is noted for its charitable, educational and artistic institutions. It mainly manufactures watches, jewelry and lace, but not the Neufchâtel cream-cheese; this comes from a small Norman town called Neufchâtelen-Bray. Population 23,505. The canton of Neuchâtel has an area of 312 square miles, and in 1910 had a population of 132,184.

Neuchâtel, Lake of, is all that is left of the large body of water which at one time covered the whole lower valley of the Aar in western Switzerland. Its greatest dimensions are 25 miles long and 6 wide, and its area 92 square miles. It is fed by the Thièle and the Reuse, and drained by the Thièle through the Lake of Bernice and thence into the Aar. Its elevation is 1,424 feet above sea-levelt and its northwestern shore is rich and cultivated, but the opposite side is barren and rocky. It has pleasing though not remarkable scenery, and is famous mostly for the discovery of the ancient remains of water-dwellings in it.

Neutral′ity, or the state in which a nation remains friendly to each of two nations which are at war with each other, is a rather novel invention in the history of nations. In ancient and even in medieval history a nation might be more or less neutral, but never entirely so, in the event of a war between its neighbors. At the present time there is a recognized code of conduct for neutral nations, which finds a place in international law. Neutrality, while not so perfectly defined that there may be no more dispute, in general requires the following mode of behavior on the part of the neutral nation: It is not to equip a privateer. For violation of this provision in the case of the Confederate cruiser Alabama, Great Britain was mulcted by arbitration in an enormous fine. It is not to allow war-vessels of the belligerents to remain in its ports more than 24 hours, except in stormy weather. It shall not be a market for prizes of war. It may not trade with either belligerent in contraband articles. It is not to be a recruiting ground for either belligerent, although it cannot be held responsible for the action of individuals in enlisting separately and on their own responsibility. But a neutral state has definite rights, as these: Its territory is not to be invaded by either belligerent. No battle is to be fought in its home waters. Troops are not to cross the territory of the neutral state. Neutral nations often proclaim the conduct which they propose to adopt at the outset of any war, chiefly to show their own citizens how far they will be protected by their own government in trading with the belligerents. A neutral vessel may trade freely except in articles contraband-of-war or in violation of a blockade. The orders of the English and French governments during the Napoleonic War, that the whole coast of their opponents should be regarded as in a state of blockade, violated the rights of neutrals in a way that would not at the present time be tolerated.

Ne′va, a northern Russian river; rising in the southwestern corner of Lake Ladoga, it passes through St. Petersburg and empties into the Bay of Cronstadt in the Gulf of Finland. It drains Lakes Ladoga, Onega, Ilmen and others. Its total length is 40 miles and the width varies from 180 to 4,000 feet. It is frozen about five months in the year.

Neva′da, one of the Pacific states of the United States, lies between Idaho and Oregon on the north, Utah and Arizona on the east and California on the south and west. It is 500 miles long and 300 wide between its farthest points. Although the sixth largest of the states and territories, it has the smallest population—81,875 in 1910. Its land surface has an area of 110,700 square miles, that is, almost twice that of Illinois.

Surface and Drainage. The largest part of the state is included in the Great Basin or what at one time was the bed of a large inland sea. This part is dry and barren, with the exception of the regions immediately around Walker, Humboldt, Carson, Pyramid, Tahoe and other lakes, and is traversed by high mountains. The mean elevation is about 4,000 feet. Wheeler Peak, the highest point in the state, has an altitude of 13,058 feet. Of the lakes Pyramid is the largest, being 35 miles long and ten wide, and Lake Tahoe has an altitude of 6,225 feet, is 21 miles long, and is an objective point for many tourists. The principal river is the Humboldt, which rises in the northeast and flows into Humboldt Lake; it is about 375 miles long.

Climate and Agriculture. The dry atmosphere is clear in winter, but in summer is filled with small particles of alkaline dust. The rainfall is exceedingly light, therefore the vegetation is very scanty though hardy. The soil, however, has proven fertile wherever irrigation has taken place, and the results have been surprising. The national government’s Truckee-Carson system irrigates 160,000 acres. (See Irrigation). Barley, oats, spring wheat, potatoes and vegetables are grown, as well as pears, applies and cherries in the cultivated sections. Stockraising is quite an extensive industry, for the hay-crop, the abundance of prairie-grass and the white sage-brush furnish food-stuffs for the entire year. Angora and Kashmir goats are raised to some extent.

Natural Resources. Fir, spruce and pine grow to a great size; mountain mahogany is found on the foothills; so are willow, beech, cottonwood, wild cherry and dwarf cedar. Among the building-stones are marble, granite, limestone, sandstone and agate. Amethyst, tourmalines and carnelians have been found. There are deposits of sulphur, gypsum, salt, borax, lead, copper, nickel, antimony, coal and mercury, but the gold and silver deposits lead all minerals. The famous Comstock Lode, discovered in 1859, produced $306,000,000 during its first twenty years. Of recent years the discovery and operation of new goldmines at Goldfield, Tonopah, Rawhide and other places have given new impetus to mining. The output of gold in 1910 was $18,873,700 and of silver $6,677,600.

Industries. The leading industries are mining and smelting, but the manufacturing interests include flour and grist mills, railroad-cars, wagons, carriages, dairy-products, boots, shoes, salt and other articles.

Education. The public schools are supported by state and local taxes; high schools as well as grammar schools are maintained in the larger towns; and education is compulsory. An Indian school is maintained by the Federal government at Carson City. The University of Nevada is at Reno, and in connection with this school the government has established an agricultural experiment-station. The state Orphans’ Home is at Carson; a hospital for the weak-minded, at Reno, a state penitentiary at Carson and also a government mint.

History. The state was separated from Utah in 1861, and admitted as a state in 1864. The first white men to visit it were the Franciscan friars in 1775. In 1825 Peter Ogden of the Hudson Bay Company came to Humboldt River, Fremont went through the state in 1843–5, and in 1849 a trading-post was established on the Carson River by the Mormons. The principal cities are Carson City, the capital (Pop. 2,466), Virginia City, Reno, Gold Hill, Goldfield, Rawhide and Toriopah. About 5,216 Indians are still on the reservations in the state. Nevada has about 1,000 miles of railroad. The Southern (formerly Central) Pacific connects it with Salt Lake City and San Francisco, the San Pedro with Los Angeles, and there are other important railroads traversing the state.

New Al′bany, Ind., an important manufacturing city, county-seat of Floyd County, is on the Ohio, nearly opposite Louisville. It has extensive rolling mills, two stove-foundries, three large machine-shops, two extensive boiler-works, four tanneries, three furniture-manufactories, two veneer-mills, a box and basket factory, a mosaic-flooring company, a hosiery-mill, cotton and woolen mills, a handle-factory, a clothing-factory and smaller industries. It has three electric interurban lines, five railroad lines and splendid shipping facilities by river Depauw College, a preparatory school for Depauw University, is located in New

NEW BEDFORD

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NEW CALEDONIA

Albany, and the city has excellent public schools. Population 20,629.

New Bed'ford, a city and port of entry in Massachusetts, is in Bristol County, on the Acushnet estuary, 56 miles south of Boston. For a century prior to 1854 it was the principal whaling-center of the world, sending out over 400 vessels and receiving 60,-ooo barrels of sperm and 120,000 of whale oil annually. Since that year, however, manufactures have claimed its attention, and it now contains cotton mills of 2j million spindles, foundries, oil, refineries, drill, cordage, boot, shoe, flour, glass and plated ware factories. New Bedford's cotton goods are the finest cotton goods made in the United States. New Bedford has many handsome private residences, and numerous prominent buildings, as the Masonic and Odd Fellows' building, Merchant's national bank, Saint Mary's Home for the Aged and Orphans, and the state armory. The educational institutions are Swain Free School, a state textile school, 30 public schools, five parish and one kindergarten (R. C.) schools and a public library of 74,000 volumes. Population 96,652.

New Brighton, a village and beach resort of New York, is on Staten Island, six miles from Manhattan Island, and for the most part consists of residences of New York's business men, and it contains, besides, many beautiful summer homes. It has commercial interests, such as extensive plaster mills, a paper factory and a dye works. New Brighton has graded schools, Curtis high school (public), Staten Island Academy, beautiful churches and a retreat for sailors known as the Sailor's Snug Harbor. It is connected with Manhattan Borough by the Municipal ferry of greater New York, of which it is a part.

New Brit'ain, a manufacturing town of Connecticut, in Hartford County, has a large park and contains the state armory and normal school. The city has manufactories of hardware, cutlery, locks, hosiery, jewelry, knit goods and machine-shop products. The city has fine churches, good public and parish schools, and is the seat of the state normal school and the New Britain Institute. Water is supplied from a reservoir of nearly 200 acres. Population 43,9.1 6.

New Bruns'wick, a province of the Dominion of Canada, is a square, bounded on the south by the Bay of Pundy and an isthmus connecting it with Nova Scotia; on the east by the Gulf of St. Lawrence; on the north by the Bay of Chaleurs and Quebec; and on the west by Maine in the United States. It has an area of 27,500 square miles, little less than that of either Scotland or Ireland, and more than twice the size of Belgium. The proportion of land cultivable is much higher in New Brunswick than in Scotland, and about as high

as in Ireland. The population is 351,815— largely Englishspeaking, although many Acadians are settled in the northern counties, lending a picturesque variety to the people. In origin there are three and one half times as many British as French. The Roman Catholic church leads in numbers, the Baptist churches next. The larger share of the population is agricultural, and generally owns its own farms. There is still a vast wealth of forestland. The three principal rivers are the St. John, the Miramichi and the Restigouche. A curious fact is that the headwaters of these three great rivers lie near to each other and the Indians in former days, as the sportsmen in our day, were thus able to pass easily from one to the other, securing thereby a highway to nearly every part of the province. A province so nearly surrounded by water and having such an excellent river system of course has splendid inland and coast navi-

eition. Steamers run to Portland, Boston, uebec and other ports.

The forests are regarded as inexhaustible. Black spruce, the best commercial wood, is largely exported. The province is noted for its game. Moose, caribou and deer are abundant. Its fisheries are among its greatest sources of wealth. The herring is the great commercial fish, though lobsters, smelts and salmon abound. One fifth of the fish caught in Canada are taken in New Brunswick waters by New Brunswick fishermen. St. John, Fredericton and Moncton are its chief cities. The schools receive a grant from the provincial treasury; the rest of their cost being defrayed by local taxation. The provincial university at Fredericton (the capital) also receives a provincial grant and revenues from university lands.

New Brunswick, capital of Middlesex County, N. J., lies on Raritan River at the head of the Delaware and Raritan Canal. It contains many churches and Rutgers College, founded in 1766, observatory, agricultural college and model farm. It manufactures great quantities of india-rubber, also hosiery, lamps and needles, and has iron and brass foundries. Population 23,388.

New Cal'edo'nia, an island in the southern Pacific belonging to France, lies between the Fiji Islands and the eastern coast of Queensland. It is about 240 miles long and 25 wide and has an area, with its dependencies, of 8,100 square miles. The ground is much broken by irregular mountain chains, but in the valleys it is fruitful, yielding cocoanut, maize, tobacco and similar products. It has rich mineral resources in copper, cobalt, antimony and chrome, and exports these, together with preserved meats, copra and coffee to England, while it imports wines, flour, drapery, groceries, machinery and coal. The annual value of its exports in a single year was 11 million francs. It has a population of 53,350, of whom 30,650 are native Kanakas.

Newcastle, Pa., a manufacturing city located on Shenango River, 50 miles northwest of Pittsburg. The production of steel is the principal industry. Large blast furnaces, rolling mills, tin plate, wire and nail mills furnish employment for thousands of workmen. Glass, brick and paper are also manufactured. Population 36,280.

New Guinea or Papua (pä′po͝o-ä), the second largest island in the world, lies 80 miles northeast of Queensland, Australia, at the southwest of the Pacific Ocean. Its length is 1490 miles, its greatest breadth 410, its estimated area over 312,000 square miles. Its population is estimated as 560,000. It was discovered by Abreu of Portugal in 1501, and has been visited repeatedly ever since. Naturalists were the first to explore the interior, Wallace being the pioneer in 1858, and doing world-famous work. Missionaries came next, and five Protestant and Roman Catholic societies are in the field. The Dutch were the first to colonize (1827), the Germans proclaimed a protectorate in 1884, and Great Britain, inspired by anxious Australia, made annexations in 1885. Dutch New Guinea is the part of the island west of 141° E. long, and covers 151,789 square miles, and perhaps has 200,000 native inhabitants. German New Guinea or Kaiser Wilhelm's Land is the northern half oi the eastern region, containing 70,000 square miles and having 15,232 natives. British New Guinea or the Territory of Papua consists of the southeastern portion of the island, with an area of 90,540 square miles and a population of 350,000 natives. The Australian commonwealth took control in 1901. The Dutch have done little for their territory; but the Germans are developing theirs through a company, though the imperial government administers public affairs; and the Australians have reduced many districts of the Territory of Papua to order and made tribes in large areas settle down to industry.

New Guinea is irregular in shape, consisting of a broad center from which a narrow peninsula runs southeastward and another to the northwest. The coasts are mostly lofty, but parts of the western shore are marshy flats covered with dense forests. The outline is broken by many indentations, but good harbors are rare. Mountain-ranges traverse the island, Mt. Owen Stanley in the southeast rising 13,205 feet, while in the northwest there are heights of over 20,000 feet, covered with perpetual snow, and active volcanoes. There are four or five large rivers. The animals, except a native pig and native mice, are marsupials and monotremes. Birds abound in amazing profusion and variety. The forests are filled with enormous trees, including the camphor. Bananas, cocoanuts, maize, rice, sago, sugarcane and yams are cultivated. The chief exports are coffee, copra, gold, pearls and pearl-shells, sandalwood and trepang. The bulk of the natives are Papuans, who are not unlike the Negroes of African Guinea, but Malay settlements are numerous on the western coast. The Papuans mainly are at a low stage of culture. Some are fierce and untractable, others friendly in disposition. See Australia and British New Guinea.

New Hamp′shire, one of the original 13 states, forming part of the New England group, is situated south of Quebec, Canada, and is bounded on the east by Maine, on the west by the Connecticut River (which separates it from Vermont) and on the south by Massachusetts. Its length is 185 miles, its breadth 90 miles, and its area 9,305 square miles. The capital is Concord (21,497). The other large cities are Manchester (70,063), Nashua (26,005), Dover (13,247) and Portsmouth (11,269).

Surface and Climate. The state is mountainous in parts, the White Mountains in the east-central region, being the most conspicuous and well-known elevations, soared over by Mt. Washington, with an altitude of 6,293 feet. Other elevated peaks occur in the northern and southwestern parts of the state; in the latter are Mt. Monadnock (3,186 feet) and Mt. Kearsarge (2,943 feet); while traversing the state lengthwise is the extreme eastern extension of the Appalachian chain. The drainage is effected by the Connecticut, Merrimac, Androscoggin, Saco, Pemigewasset, Winnepesaukee and Piscataqua Rivers; the chief lakes being Winnepesaukee, Umbagog, Squam, Sunapee and New-Found Lakes. The state has a humid climate, with an abundant rainfall, especially in the mountain regions; while the winters are usually long and severe, save in the delightful and healthy valleys, economically useful for agricultural operations and desirable as residential districts.

Natural Resources. The state is interesting to the geologist, and, though denuded of its original forest, is rich in granite quarries and has considerable mica deposits. The rivers, moreover, furnish an abundant waterpower, taken advantage of by the manufacturing establishments; while wood-pulp in quantities is still available, derived chiefly from the new growth of timber. New Hampshire has a narrow sea-front, but sufficient, with its interior rivers and lakes, to give it some fishery interests — the principal catch embracing cod, mackerel, haddock, lobster and clams. The value, annually, of the timber and lumber products is to-day about 10 million dollars.

Agriculture and Stockraising. The area available for farming is comparatively limited. The region of the chief farms is the coast and the interior valleys, a total area of not more than 3,250,000 acres, and that utilized chiefly for garden products and fruit (especially apple) cultivation. The yield of hay is considerable, as are the forage crops; while much attention is given to dairying and to raising cattle, sheep, swine and horses.

Manufactures. The growth of these has been phenomenal, as one may realize by a visit to such centers of industry as Manchester, Nashua, Dover, Concord, Laconia, Keene and Portsmouth, one or other of these towns being the seat of establishments which turn out cotton goods, woolens, hosiery and knitted goods, boots and shoes, not to speak of the tanning trade, flour and grist mill output, foundry, machine, lumber, timber and paper products and the factory products of cheese, butter and condensed milk. The manufacturing establishments exceed 1,900, with an aggregate capital of about 140 million dollars and a yield of products of $164,581,000 yearly, produced by 78,658 wage-earners. In the last year the yield of cotton goods was in value close upon 34 million dollars; of boots and shoes 39½ millions; of woolen goods 16 millions; of hosiery and knit goods 5 millions; of paper products and wood pulp 14 millions; of foundry and machine shop products 5 millions; and of lumber and timber products 15 millions, with 2½ millions as the value of wood-packing boxes.

Commerce, Finance and Transportation. The railway mileage in 1909 was 1,192 miles, consolidated in the hands of the Boston and Maine Railroad and of the Canadian line of the Grand Trunk. The banking business is handled by 57 national, nine state and 60 savings banks, with a total capital of six millions, and combined deposits close upon 75 millions. The net debt in 1909 was under $800,000, with an assessed valuation of property of 225 millions.

Education. There are 2,096 elementary schools with a school population of 75,385 in 1910, an enrolled attendance of 54,966 and an average attendance of 50,101. Besides these there were 65 high schools with 278 teachers and 6,136 pupils. The school expenditure for the year amounted to 1,619,505. Higher education is represented by Dartmouth College, at Hanover (q. v.), a nonsectarian institution having 118 instructors and 1,229 students; St. Anselm's College (R. C.) at Manchester with 17 instructors and 135 students; the state normal school at Plymouth (for teachers); New Hampshire College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts at Durham, besides academies juid private schools for boys at Exeter and Concord and asylums and charitable organizations for the indigent and afflicted.

History. The records of the early explorers include the visit of Sir Martin Pring in 1603 to Piscataqua Harbor and settlement 20 years later under land grants to John Mason and Sir Fernando Gorges, when the district was known as the Province of Maine. In 1629 a grant of land was made to Mason of territory lying between the Piscataqua and the Merrimac River, which subsequently came to be called New Hampshire from the county of Hampshire in England. Settlements followed later at Little Harbor, Dover, Exeter, Portsmouth and other places. In 1635, when John Mason died, the colony became unsettled and disturbed, when it was placed for protection, in 1641, under the colony of Massachusetts. A royal decree revived the separate colony of New Hampshire in 1680 under a grandson of Mason, and shortly after the colony was erected into a royal province, which it remained until the era of the Revolution, though without charter, the region being under the joint governor of Massachusetts and New Hampshire. Then followed disputes with Massachusetts as to boundaries, together with trouble with the Indians, the state meanwhile taking active part in the Revolutionary War. Conventions succeeded conventions in the effort to secure a constitution, which the state ultimately received in 1792. In 1788 New Hampshire took part in ratifying the Federal constitution and in creating the Union. For a time Portsmouth was its capital, and then the capital became migratory, subsequently settling in Concord. For its industries see the works by McClistock, by Sanborn and by Barstow. Population 430,572.

New Ha′ven, the largest seaport and city of Connecticut and fourth largest in New England, stands at the head of New Haven Bay. It has broad, shaded streets, public squares, parks and gardens and handsome public buildings. It also contains Yale University, Sheffield Scientific School, Hopkins Grammar School (1660) and a high school consisting of Hillhouse School and Boardman Manual-Training School. Its chief consequence is as a manufacturing town, having large works in hardware, wire, locks, clocks, cutlery, firearms, indiarubber goods, carriages, furniture, paper and matches. The city was settled by an English company in 1638 and was unconnected with Connecticut until 1662. It was incorporated as a town in 1665 and received a city charter in 1784. Until 1873 it was jointly the capital with Hartford. Population 133,605.

New Heb′rides, a chain of islands in Melanesia, west of Fiji and northeast of New Caledonia in the western Pacific, running from northeast to southwest. There are over 30 islands in the group, but only about 20 are populated. All are of volcanic origin, and some still have active volcanoes. The largest are Espiritu Santo, 70 miles by 40; Malikolo, 56 by 20; Ambrym, 22 by 17; Sandwich, 30 by 15; Erromango, 30 by 22; and Tanna, 18 by 10. All are high and well-wooded, and the moist, clear, warm atmosphere allows the cultivation of tropical fruits and products, as the yam, taro, banana, breadfruit, sugar cane, arrow-root and cocoanut. The people, who belong to the Papuan and Polynesian races, are cannibals. The chain was discovered by Quiros, the Portuguese, in 1606, and explored by Captain Cook in 1773. They are claimed by the British and by the French, and for the protection of life and property are under the authority of a mixed commission of French and English naval officers on Pacific stations. Population estimated at about 80,000.

New Jer′sey, a small but important state, one of the original Thirteen, 160 miles in length and 70 in extreme breadth, with an area of 7,815 square miles; capital Trenton (96,815). The population of the state (census 1910) is 2,537,167. It is bounded on the north and northeast by New York; on the south and southeast by Delaware Bay and the Atlantic; while Delaware River separates it on the west from Pennsylvania. It is closely connected with Manhattan Island and New York City by ferries across the Hudson River and the Lower Bay of New York to Hoboken, Jersey City and other eastern points of the state, these towns, with Newark and Elizabeth, being, as one may say, suburbs of New York City. Of easy access also from New York City are the towns and summer resorts of New Jersey's coast by rail and steamer, including Long Branch, Asbury Park, Ocean Grove, Atlantic City and Cape May.

Surface and Climate. The natural features are not noteworthy, for the surface, for the most part, is a gently undulating plain, broken here and there by slight elevations, as the Kittatinny Range, the Navesink Highland, the Palisades of the Hudson and, in the northern part, the Appalachian Highland extension. Besides the Palisades other interesting features are Delaware Water-Gap, the low-lying beaches of the Atlantic coast and the lake resorts of Lake Hopaticong and Greenwood Lake. The rivers are the Passaic and Hackensack, which empty into Newark Bay, the Manrice, which falls into the Delaware, and the Raritan, which, following through Raritan Bay, finds its way into Lower (N. Y.) Bay and the Atlantic. The climate is temperate, varying slightly between north and south and between the lowlands and the highlands. The soil is composed chiefly of sand and clay, not rich enough on the whole to do without fertilizers, save in the river valleys.

Natural Resources. The agricultural industry, though not large, is in many respects important, chiefly in the cultivation, largely under glass, of early vegetables and orchard fruits for New York and other immediate markets, besides growing and trimming tomatoes and raising poultry. In 1910 the acreage of the chief farm crops was corn, 290,000 acres; winter wheat 111,000; oats 60,000; rye 85,000; potatoes (Irish) 95,000; sweet potatoes 22,000; and hay, 437,000 acres. The cattle and dairy industry receives much attention, the numbers of live stock in 1910 being dairy cows, 154,418, other cattle 68,581; horses 88,922; swine 147,005; sheep 30,683; and mules and asses 4,094. The total farm acreage in 1910 was 2,573,857 acres, two thirds being improved farm land; while the average size of the farms did not exceed 77 acres. The extent of the dairy industry will be realized when it is related that over $6,000,000 represent the annual yield for milk. The returns from the orchard are large when we consider the state's comparatively small area. The chief fruits raised, however, are confined in the main to peaches, apples, strawberries and cranberries. The mining industries are limited to the quarrying of buildingstone and granite, besides soapstone and talc and magnetite ores, together with a considerable yield from the brick and tile yards and from the beds of Portland cement. The yield from lumber and timber products aggregated $1,404,000 in 1909. The fisheries form another source of wealth, the value of the catch in 1900 amounting to $4,750,000, besides the sums obtained from the oyster and clam yield.

Manufactures. New Jersey takes high rank among manufacturing states, the range of manufactured articles being both large and varied. They include, under textiles, cotton, woolen, worsted and silk goods; besides iron and steel, foundry and machine shop products; sewing machines; electrical apparatus; glass, pottery and terracotta ware; jewelry, leather and rubber goods; malt liquors; cigars and tobacco; lumber; chemicals; oil and petroleum refining; and other wares and products. In 1900 the gross value of the manufactures was estimated at close upon $612,000,000, the number of wage-earners exceeding 241,000 and the total capital employed being over $500,000,000. The number of manufactories in 1900 was 15,481. The chief manufacturing centers are Newark, Jersey City, Paterson (the seat in especial of silk trade), Bayonne, Camden, Perth Amboy, Trenton (the seat of the trade in pottery), Passaic and Elizabeth, the latter being noted for its sewing-machine industry.

Commerce and Transportation. The state is well-supplied with financial institutions, there being to-day 196 national, 20 state and 26 savings banks, within its jurisdiction, besides 86 loan and trust companies, the combined deposits in which amount to close upon $460,000,000. In 1911 the total capital of the national banks approached $22,000,000, of the state banks, $2,000,000 and of the trust companies doing business in New Jersey over $10,000,000. The state revenue is in the main derived from taxes on the railroad and other corporations, amounting to close upon $5,000,000 annually, with like disbursements chiefly expended on school maintenance, on the public roads and on the penal and charitable institutions. The transportation facilities are good, the railway mileage in 1910 being 2,260 miles, chiefly credited to the Pennsylvania system and the Delaware, Lackawanna and Western, Jersey Central, Erie and Lehigh Valley lines, the eastern terminals of all of which are at Hoboken and Jersey City, the arriving and leaving ports, moreover, of two of the transatlantic steamship lines — the Hamburg-American and North German Lloyd Companies. Besides these facilities the state still uses its two canals (chiefly for the transportation of coal) the Morris and the Delaware and Raritan, the former 100 miles in length and the latter 65 miles. The state also has an electric railway mileage exceeding 1,100 miles in extent.

Education and Government. New Jersey does liberal things for education, its expenditure for public schools in 1910 exceeding $18,000,000 and being chiefly expended on new buildings, maintenance and teachers' salaries. The system is directed by a superintendent of public instruction and a board of education. The schools number close upon 2,000, giving employment to 12,087 teachers, chiefly women, while the average daily attendance approaches 325,000 out of an enrollment of 429,797. There is a normal School at Trenton, with institutes elsewhere in the state for training teachers, in addition to about 200 public and private high schools and academies, with over 16,000 students in attendance. Higher education is provided, in addition to technical school institutes at Hoboken and Newark, by Princeton University, which now has 174 instructors and 1,442 students, by Rutgers College at New Brunswick with 48 instructors and 344 students, by Seton Hall College, at South Orange, with 25 instructors and 225 students, by St. Peter's College (R. C.) at Jersey City, by St. Benedict's College (R. C.) at Newark, by Bordentown Female College and by Stevens Institute of Technology at Hoboken, in addition to the industrial, charitable and penal institutions under the care of the board of charities. The state has a legislature, consisting of 21 senators and 60 members of the general assembly, which meets in annual session. It sends 2 senators and 10 representatives to the Federal Congress. The local executive is under the direction of the governor, who is elected for three years and not eligible for re-election. His veto on legislation can be overridden by a majority vote in the House. There also is adequate provision for the maintenance of judicial authority.

History. New Jersey, as we to-day know it, has an early history under the Dutch, who claimed it as a part of New Netherland; while settlement was effected in the region of the present Bergen County and beside the Delaware River early in the 17th century by Danes and Swedes, who, however, came under the jurisdiction of Peter Stuyvesant, Dutch governor of New York. In 1664 the territory was conveyed by Charles II of England to James, Duke of York, who presently reconveyed it to two favorites, John, Lord Berkeley, and Sir George Carteret, the latter then governor of the Island of Jersey. Under these two lords-proprietor, the colony (the region between the Hudson and the Delaware Rivers) was governed, with some changes, until the Revolution, Carteret being for some period of the time governor in person, with Elizabethtown as his capital. In 1674 Berkeley sold his interest in the colony to two Quakers, when the region was divided into two sections, East and West New Jersey, Carteret retaining the former half until 1682, when his heirs sold it to William Penn and his Quaker associates. Early in the 18th century both colonies were ceded by their respective proprietors to the Crown, when they were united and came under the rule of governors of New York, the colony retaining its separate assembly. New Jersey in 1738 began to be under a single governor of its own until 1776, when the last royal governor was deposed and the colony became a state of the American Union, with a constitution, which was ratified in 1787. In 1844 a new constitution was given it, which in 1875 was revised. Trenton became the capital in 1790. See Raum's History of New Jersey and Lee's New Jersey as a Colony and a State.

New Lis′keard is at the head of Lake Temiskaming in the Nipissing district (Ontario). Population 3,000 and rapidly increasing. It is the commercial center, only 340 miles from Toronto, the door to the rich lands attracting attention in Temiskaming Valley. It has daily train service to Toronto via North Bay.

New Lon′don, Ct., a seaport of that state, lies on the right bank of the Thames, three miles from its mouth, has a courthouse, city-hall and customhouse, and includes woolens, silk, agricultural machinery, hardware, cot-tongins, printingpresses, boilers, hot-water and steam-heating apparatus and crackers among its manufacturers. It has a good harbor and a navy-yard, and many vessels engaged in sealing and fishing. In the days of whalefishing it sent out 300 whaleships annually which laid the foundation of the town's prosperity. Its chief distinction at present is its nine beautiful schoolbuildings and grounds. The town was settled in 1646 by John Winthrop, first governor of Connecticut, and burned by Benedict Arnold in 1781. Population 19,659. New Mex′ico. A state located in the southwestern part of the United States. It lies south of Colorado, west of Oklahoma and Texas, north of Texas and Mexico and east of Arizona. The state is nearly square, and contains 122,580 square miles. It is nearly equal in size to Pennsylvania, New York and Maine combined. It was admitted as a state Jan. 6, 1912.

Surface. The state is traversed by the southern end of the eastern range of the Rocky Mountain system. Hence the surface is very irregular—a great plateau from 4,000 feet to 8,000 feet high, cut by river-valleys, canyons, mountain-ranges and peaks. The continental divide passes irregularly north and south through the middle of the western half of the state; hence nearly all of the drainage is into the Gulf of Mexico by means of the Canadian River, the Pecos River and the Rio Grande; a very small portion of the western part drains into the Gulf of California through the San Juan, Little Colorado and Gila Rivers, tributaries of the Colorado. The principal mountain-ranges are the Raton, the Culebra and the Jemez of the north; and the Sacramento, the San Andreas and the Black of the south; all of which have a north-and-south trend. Many peaks reach 9,000 to 12,000 feet. The striking features of the landscape are the large mesas or tablelands, many capped with lava.

History. The ruins of numerous communal houses built in great caves in lava formations or on the tops of isolated mesas bear evidences of a prehistoric people that was well-advanced in building, weaving and the manufacture of earthenware. This prehistoric people understood irrigation and agriculture. The Spaniards who first settled in Mexico made expeditions into New Mexico early in the 16th century, and found many prosperous Indian villages, called pueblos. In 1598 Oñate founded a colony near San Juan on the upper Rio Grande and became the first governor. In 1582 Espejo settled at Santa Fé, the second oldest permanent white settlement in the United States. For nearly 100 years the king of Spain controlled New Mexico through his governors, but in 1680 there was a general revolt of the Indians and all foreigners were killed or driven out. Twelve years later (1692) Vargas reconquered the territory, and it remained a province of Mexico until 1846, when it was taken by General Kearny in the war between the United States and Mexico and was ceded to the United States on May 30, 1848, by the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo. That portion of New Mexico which lies south of 32° N. was purchased from Mexico in 1853 under the Gadsden Purchase.

Inhabitants. The population (1910) is 327,301; nearly half of whom are Spanish, and about 40,000 are Indians. Thousands of land entries are now (1911) being made, and all by English-speaking people; the percentage of native inhabitants therefore is constantly decreasing.

Climate. New Mexico has an exceedingly healthful climate, and is known as the Land of Sunshine, having 250 days of sunshine in a year. The mean annual temperature of the principal cities ranges from 50° to 55°, which is regarded as ideal. The rainfall is very light, averaging about 12 inches. The territory is a mecca for hundreds of tuberculous patients who enter it yearly and receive great benefit. Wind velocity is often high, but tornadoes are unknown.

Education. The public-school system was organized in 1891. Since then educational advantages have grown rapidly. The state board of education through its secretary, the state superintendent of public instruction, has general supervision over the public schools, and in each county there is a county superintendent. More than 56,000 children are enrolled in the public schools and 1,500 teachers employed. City schools are excellent; rural schools inferior, but gradually improving. Spanish is the prevailing language in the mountainous districts, but English is the language of the schools. The educational institutions are located as follows: University of New Mexico, Albuquerque; Normal University, East Las Vegas; Normal School, Silver City; School of Mines, Socorro; Agricultural College, Las Cruces; Military Institute, Roswell; School for the Deaf, Santa Fé; School for the Blind, Alamogordo.

Industries. The most important industries are sheepraising and woolgrowing. Fully 4,000,000 head of sheep are found within the territory. Thousands of head of cattle are raised on the ranges and shipped to the central west. The annual shipment is from 75,000 to 100,000 head. Mining is an important industry. Coal, copper, silver, gold, lead and zinc are mined in considerable quantities. The output of coal and copper comes first in importance. The annual output of lumber amounts to over 100,000,000 feet. The forests are in the highest mountain regions. The largest sawmill and lumber-yard is at Albuquerque. Logs are brought from the Zuñi Mountains, 100 miles distant. Agriculture is an important industry in the large valleys where water may be secured for irrigation. Alfalfa and fruit constitute the most important crops, although kafir corn, maize, millet, wheat, oats, rye, barley and vegetables are raised. In some sections dry farming succeeds in favorable years. Manufacturing is not an important industry, although breweries, ice-factories, smelters, woolen mills and sash and door factories are found in the larger cities.

Transportation. The most important rail road is the Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fé which traverses the central portion of New Mexico from north to south and branches west from Albuquerque to the coast. The central portion is therefore connected directly with Denver, Kansas City and Chicago; with El Paso and the City of Mexico; and with Los Angeles and San Francisco. The Rock Island; El Paso and Northeastern; Denver and Rio Grande; and Santa Fé Central are other important roads cutting the territory. Several automobile routes have been established connecting various points of the different railroads, thus saving long distances and much time.

New Or′leans, the largest city of Louisiana, lies on both sides of the Mississippi about 107 miles from its mouth, and derives its name of Crescent City from the shape that two bends in the river give it. Its situation as the southern outlet makes it the third city in the United States in importance as to exports. It is the terminus of three canals, nine large railroads and three local lines, while over 20 lines of steamships connect it with other ports. Since 1875 New Orleans has made great progress in manufactures, particularly in cotton goods, cotton-seed oil, machinery, lumber, furniture, fertilizers, sugar-refining and rice-milling. New Orleans is built upon ground from two to six feet below the surface of the river, and is protected from the rising waters by levees along the water front. It contains the United States mint, an old Gothic church (a good sample of Creole-Spanish architecture) and a new customhouse, besides the largest charity hospital in the United States. It has good public schools, maintained at an annual cost of $450,000, with a teaching force of 702 and an attendance of 31,521 pupils. Tulane University, with 243 professors and 1,621 students has under its control Newcomb College for the higher education of girls. There also are the College of the Immaculate Conception and four colleges for negroes. The Howard Memorial, Tulane and Louisiana libraries, all free, contain together 150,000 volumes. The place where the city is built was first visited by Bienville in 1699. He founded the city in 1718, and made it the capital in 1726, which honor it held until 1852 and again during 1865-79. It was ceded to Spain by France, but in 1765 the people established a separate government, only to have the leaders of the movement shot in 1769. It was incorporated as a city in 1804. It was the scene of the battle of New Orleans in 1815, and was captured by Farragut in 1862. The people are of all nations, only 19 per cent. being of American or English descent. Seventeen per cent. are Creoles, a term applied to people born in the southern states of French, Spanish or Portuguese ancestors. The Creole dialects are corruptions of French, Spanish and Portuguese. Mr. Cable's stories revealed to English readers the singularly quaint charm of the phraseology and manners of the Creoles of Louisiana, who are of French descent. Besides the American and Creole inhabitants, the population is made up of Germans, Irish, Italians, Spaniards, Scandinavians, Jews, Negroes, mixed races, Indians, Chinese and Malays. A large international trade is carried through New Orleans; an aggregate tonnage of 1,800,000 tons entered and cleared in 1906. The value of its imports was $39,500,000, while the exports were valued at $150,500,000. Population 339,075.

New Rochelle (rō-shĕl′), N. Y., a town in Westchester County on Echo Bay in Long Island Sound and on the New York, New Haven and Hartford Railroad. Being within 17 miles of Grand Central Station, New York City, many merchants of the great capital make their homes here and find it salubrious and attractive. Its yacht club, rowing club and golf links bring many people for a day's outing from the greater city. It has fine school buildings, beautiful churches, handsome residences, an excellent system of public schools, banks and other adjuncts of a thriving suburban city. Population 28,867.

New South Wales, the oldest colony in Australia, formerly included Queensland, Victoria, South Australia, Tasmania and New Zealand, but now its area is 310,367 square miles and its population, including 10,000 Chinese, blacks and half-caste natives, is 1,664,644. The Australian Alps, Blue Mountains and Liverpool Range are some of the mountains scattered over the country. The Murray, Lothian, Nepean, Clarence, Shoalhaven, Darling and Macquarie are some of the chief rivers. The colony was established in 1788 by a party of transported prisoners from England. Then land was given to free colonists, and transportation ceased in 1840. Thereon followed a great social advance, stimulated by the discovery of gold in 1851. The country is covered with trees, as the eucalyptus, palm, pine and cedar, and vegetation is very rich. Kangaroos infest this as well as other regions in Australia; there are many lizards and snakes and birds of beautiful plumage. Gold was first worked in 1851 near Bathhurst, and is now found in an area covering 70,000 square miles, to an annual value of nearly $25,000,000. Silver abounds in Barrier Range; copper, tin, bismuth, manganese, antimony, mercury, zinc, cobalt and alum are mined; and precious stones are found in the granite formations. Yet the greatest mineral wealth is found in the coalfields, extending over 24,000 square miles and yielding 8,173,508 tons in 1910. Sheep and cattle are extensively raised, there being over 50,000,000 sheep now in pasture. The export of wool is nearly 300,000,000 pounds a year. While 140,000,000 acres are devoted to pasturage, only 1,000,000 are given to farming. The agricultural output is very small. Other exports include (beside gold, coal and the great wool crop), hides, skins, oranges, citrons, cane-sugar, wine, brandy, leather, tallow and meat, preserved and frozen. The colony has the largest trade, on account of its harbors and resources, of any of the Australian colonies. In 1911 it had 3,761 miles of railroad open for traffic. Public schools maintained by the state are now established, entirely unconnected with the church. Higher education is represented by the University of Sydney, with a staff of 80 professors and lecturers and 948 students. The laws are administered by a governor appointed by the crown, an executive council, a legislative council and legislative assembly. Sydney is the chief town. Population, including suburbs, 621,100. See T. A. Coglan's Wealth and Progress of New South Wales.

New Stars, sometimes called temporary stars, are bodies which suddenly make their appearance in the heavens, rise rapidly to their full brightness, and soon begin to diminish until they can be seen only with a telescope or, perhaps, not at all. The earliest one of which we have any account is that of 1572, generally known as the Star of Tycho Brahe. But it is only since the invention of the spectroscope that this class of stars has come to be of especial interest. The new star in the constellation of Corona Borealis, discovered by Birmingham on May 12, 1866, was examined spectroscopically by Huggins and Miller. They found that it possessed both a dark line spectrum and a bright line spectrum, differing in this respect from nearly all the other stars. The next new star was that in the constellation of the Swan, known as Nova Cygni, discovered on Nov. 24, 1876, a red star of the third magnitude. Two years later it was fainter than the 11th magnitude. Nova Andromedæ was discovered in August, 1885; and Nova Orionis in December of the same year. But the star which Anderson at Edinburgh discovered on Jan. 24, 1892, far exceeded all previous new stars in interest, because the power of the spectroscope had been increased in many ways since the previous stars were observed. For a full account of this star, called Nova Aurigæ, the reader is referred to Scheiner’s Astronomical Spectroscopy, where its interesting spectrum is described in detail. The next and only other important new star was also discovered by Anderson, this time in the constellation of Perseus, Feb. 22, 1901. Many theories have been advanced to explain this curious phenomenon; but the one which at present seems most probable is that advanced by Seeliger: The new star is produced by some dark body rushing into a meteor swarm or a nebula, the impact of small particles being sufficient to bring the dark body to incandescence.

New Year’s Day is the first day of the year. It now is usually celebrated by feasting and the interchange of presents. Jews, Chinese, Egyptians and Mohammedans, while differing as to the time of celebration, celebrate the first day of the year in their respective calendars. In the Christian era Christmas day, Easter and the 1st of March have each in turn been celebrated, and it was not until late in the 16th century that the 1st of January was universally accepted. In Scotland, France and Italy New Year’s is of more importance than Christmas, but in other countries the latter has superseded the former as a day of rejoicing and of making gifts.

New York, a North-Atlantic state of the Union, of firstclass importance in a political, commercial and industrial aspect, entitling it to rank, as claimed, as The Empire State. It is the seaward gateway of the chief immigration and trade of the Old World into the New. Its area is 49,170 square miles, its length being 310 miles and its breadth 320 miles. On the north it is bounded by Lake Ontario, the St. Lawrence and Quebec; on the west by Lake Erie and Niagara River; on the south by Pennsylvania, New Jersey, New York Bay and the Atlantic; and on the east by Lake Champlain, Vermont, Massachusetts, Connecticut and Long Island Sound. On its extreme southwestern corner the lower Hudson separates New York (state and city) from New Jersey. Embraced in the state are such islands as Manhattan, Long Island and Staten Island in the south; smaller ones in New York Bay, Jamaica Bay and East River; and others in Niagara River, the St. Lawrence and Lake Champlain. The population in 1900 was 7,268,894; in 1910 it was 9,113,614. The capital is Albany, 100,253. Other chief cities are New York, 4,766,883; Buffalo 423,715; Rochester 218,149; Syracuse 137,249; Troy 76,813; Utica 74,419; Yonkers 79,803; Binghamton 48,443; Schenectady 72,826; and Auburn 34,668. Of a total of 30,476,800 acres of land contained in the state 22,648,109 acres are in farms. The state contains 61 counties. Of these the ten original counties, namely, Albany, Dutchess, Kings, New York, Orange, Queens, Richmond, Suffolk, Ulster and Westchester were created Nov. 1, 1683, and the latest, Nassau, formed from Queens county, was created Jan. 1, 1899.

Surface and Drainage. The general contour is hilly and undulating, the loftiest regions being among the Adirondacks and the Catskills, with high plateaux here and there, notably on the Taconic Range and along the Highlands of the Hudson, alternated by valleys. These elevated peaks range from 1,500 to over 5,340 feet, the latter being the height of Mount Marcy in the Adirondacks. The state has many attractive lakes, the chief of which are Lakes Seneca, Cayuga, George, Chautauqua, Oneida, Champlain and Canandaigua; while it is broken by rivers in its different sections. The principal river is the Hudson, which rising in the Adirondacks flows south into New York Bay and the Atlantic: it is navigable for 150 miles from its mouth as far as Troy. Its main tributary is the Mohawk, which drains the central part of the state and supplies good waterpower for the industries along its course. The other chief streams are Oswego, Niagara, Genesee and Black Rivers (which find their outlet in the north into the southern waters of Lake Ontario), the Susquehanna, the Oneida, Chemung, Delaware, Saranac, Au Sable, Oswegatchie, Chenango and Charlotte. The great waterway of the St. Lawrence is on its northern borders. The climate naturally varies in different areas, being colder in the northern and warmer in the southern and coastal region. There is an abundant rainfall, denser in the north, where the winters are usually protracted and severe. In the Mohawk and Genesee Valleys the soil is good for farming, though elsewhere it needs fertilizers. The original forests, save in the preserved districts of the Adirondacks, have disappeared, largely as the result of fires and indiscreet waste. This has had its effect upon the climate, while it has limited the area of game preservation.

Natural Resources. Though not notable as a farming state, New York makes a fair showing in the production of cereals, especially oats and Indian corn. In 1910 it raised over 46 million bushels of oats, over 26 million of corn and close upon 10,000,000 of wheat. The yield of hay, potatoes and buckwheat was also large. In dairy products the state also makes a good showing; in 1900 New York producing 62,096,690 eggs; the poultry yield, moreover, was large; while nearly $10,000,000 were the net proceeds from the sales of butter and over $36,000,000 from the sales of milk. A considerable sum is also derived annually from the fruit orchards, especially from the sales of grapes and apples; while the cultivation of flowers, chiefly for the New York City markets, is a profitable industry. Stock-raising also is a large industry, the number of horses in 1910 being close upon 591,000, of cattle 2,423,000, of sheep nearly 1,000,000 and of swine 666,179. The mineral resources consist chiefly of building-stone, including limestone, sandstone, granite and marble; besides slate, iron-ore, clay, bricks, tiles, mineral waters, salt, petroleum and natural gas. The value of fisheries in 1901 was under $4,000,000.

Manufactures. New York leads the Union in volume of manufactured goods, as also in the amount of capital employed. In 1909 the state had 44,935 manufacturing establishments, employing a capital of more than $2,779,000,000, with 1,003,098 wage-earners, and turning out $3,369,490,000 in value. A large volume of this enormous total trade is credited to New York City, the metropolis, where cheap foreign labor is available in such industries as men's and women's factory-made clothing, and that turned out by contract in small workshops and tenements, including men's furnishing goods (shirts, hosiery and knit-wear), women's furs, millinery and lace goods, embracing silk, cotton, woolen and worsted goods; with the output in other branches of trade — boots, shoes, furniture, carpets, rugs, jewelry, confectionery, carriages, wagons, paper, printing, lithographic and publishing output, chemical products, electrical apparatus and supplies, iron-work, foundry and machine products, patent medicines, liquor, tobacco and cigars; besides agricultural implements, timber, lumber, planing-mill products and flour and grist-mill products. Outside of New York City much of the volume of trade in special lines is turned out in other towns and districts, aided in part by the waterpower facilities of the localities. Troy, for instance, has become the manufacturing seat of shirts, collars and cuffs; Gloversville is noted for its glove trade; Cohoes for hosiery and knitted goods; Yonkers for carpets and rugs; Rochester for flourmilling and its boot and shoe trade; and Brooklyn for breweries, sugar-refineries, foundries and machine-shops.

Commerce and Transportation. With its ocean and lake ports, canal and vast railway facilities, the commerce of New York is of stupendous and steadily growing volume, both local and foreign. The imports of New York City in 1910 were close upon $951,500,000 in value, while its exports were about $795,000,000. The foreign tonnage entering and clearing for 1911 was, entered 13,428,950 tons; cleared 13,336,893 tons. Large also was the trade of the interior ports, as Buffalo, Niagara Falls, Ogdensburg, Oswego, Rochester and Plattsburg. Extensive are the banking facilities, more particularly in New York City, added to by the operations of the trust-companies, the general soundness of all of which has in repeated financial crises been put to protracted and severe tests. In 1911 the state had 458 national banks with an aggregate capital of close upon $171,500,000, eposits of $1,010,000,000 and loans exceeding $1,192,000,000. There also were 198 state banks with about $33,000,000 of capital and $428,000,000 on deposit. There were, moreover, some 85 trust companies, with about $72,000,000 of capital and about $1,185,000,000 in deposit. Besides these the state in 1910-11 had 141 savings banks, with 2,957,650 depositors and over $1,561,000,000 on deposit. An average of $527.83 for each depositor. The activities and extent of the banking of the state and its chief metropolis may be otherwise gathered by noting the volume of the transactions for 1911 in the New York Clearing-House, which totalled $92,420,000,000 or average daily clearings of $305,016,898. The state's receipts and expenditures to-day about balance at $30,000,000 annually, the chief outlay being for education, for hospital and charities' maintainance, besides the expenses incurred by the executive, legislative and judicial departments, and for canal maintenance. The debt of the state to-day, incurred chiefly since 1893 in improving the canals, is only about $11,000,000. The state's railway mileage (8,225 miles in gross) consists of the N. Y. Central and Hudson River; Erie; N. Y., Ontario, and Western; Delaware, Lackawanna and Western; Lehigh Valley; Delaware and Hudson; and Long Island railways. Besides these roads there are the great commercial arteries of the Hudson and of the canals — the Erie, Oswego and Champlain, — the total expenditure of the state on which has exceeded $100,000,000, nearly $66,000,000 being spent on the Erie Canal.

Education. For school-purposes the state organized in 1854 into 113 commissioners' districts under the Department of Education, the Board of Regents of the University of New York (q. v.) since 1904 having supervision of the secondary and the higher-educational institutions. In 1910 the elementary schools had 1,301,924 pupils enrolled, with an average daily attendance of 1,035,234, and 37,617 teachers, the most of whom were women. The secondary schools had an enrollment of 122,208 and an average attendance of about 86,504. The gross expenditure of the state for education was close upon $75,000,000, fully $42,000,000 being yearly expended on teachers' salaries. The training of teachers is amply provided for in a number of professional schools and normal school institutes, the chief being Teachers' College, Manhattan, with 75 instructors and 975 students. In the state there are some 15 or 16 theological schools, 12 schools of medicine, 8 of law, besides schools of pharmacy, music and dentistry. The chief colleges for women are Vassar College at Poughkeepsie and Barnard College, an annex of Columbia University, in New York City. Columbia is the most important university in the state, with 646 instructors, 5,057 students and close upon 20,000 graduates since organization. Other colleges in Manhattan embrace the non-sectarian College of the City of New York with 179 instructors and 3,905 students; St. John's College (R. C.), Fordham, N. Y. City, with 56 instructors and 603 students; St. Francis Xavier College (R. C.), Manhattan, with 31 instructors and 550 students; Manhattan College (R. C.), with 16 instructors and 212 students. The advanced institutions outside of New York City embrace Cornell University, at Ithaca, with 663 instructors and 5,194 students; the University of Rochester (Baptist) with 34 instructors and 438 students; Union College, Schenectady, with 30 instructors and 240 students; St. Angela College (R. C.), New Rochelle, with 19 instructors and 100 students; Syracuse University (nonsectarian) with 240 instructors and 3,248 students; Niagara University (R. C.), Niagara Falls City, with 25 instructors and 300 students; Kenka College (nonsectarian), Kenka Park, with 17 instructors and 106 students; Elmira College (Presbyterian , with 19 instructors and 255 students; Hamilton College (nonsectarian), Clinton, with 19 instructors and 185 students; Hobart College (nonsectarian), Geneva, with 16 instructors and 120 students; Colgate University (undenominational), at Hamilton, with 40 instructors and 400 students; Alfred University (nonsectarian), with 30 instructors and 385 students; Canisius College (R. C.), Buffalo, with 30 instructors and 470 students; Adelphi College (nonsectarian), Brooklyn, with 34 instructors and 477 students; besides a number of technical institutes, the chief of which is Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, with 55 instructors and 650 students. (The national Military Academy of the United States is at West Point, with 83 instructors and an attendance of 475). Other colleges are Wells (nonsectarian), Aurora, with 24 instructors and 189 students; St. Stephen's (Protestant Episcopal), Annandale, with 9 instructors and 63 students; St. Lawrence University (Universalist), Canton, with 52 instructors and 646 students; Rochester Theological Seminary (Baptist), with 14 instructors and 145 students; Rochester Athenæum and Mechanics' Institute (nonsectarian), with 60 instructors and 2,790 students; Pratt Institute, Brooklyn, with 153 instructors and 1,773 students; Brooklyn Polytechnic Institute, with 578 students; the General Theological Seminary (Protestant Episcopal), N. Y. City, with 18 instructors and 127 students; Auburn Theological Seminary (Presbyterian), with 14 instructors and 63 students; Clarkson School of Technology, Potsdam, with 10 instructors and 70 students; and Union Theological Seminary, N. Y. City, with 21 instructors and 157 students. (See articles under titles preceding) .

History. The region and its chief waterways were at an early era visited by navigators and explorers, Portuguese, French and Spanish, Verrazano, it is recorded, discovering New York Bay and the mouth of the Hudson in 1524. It, however, was not until 1609 that the region came into historic note, for in that year Hudson ascended the river in the Dutch fur-trading interest; while almost simultaneously Lake Champlain was discovered by the founder of Quebec and father of New France. The Dutch astutely profited by the enmity of the Iroquois to the French, for they made friends of the Iroquois, who subserved their interests, or at least did not oppose their colonizing and trading in New Netherland. In 1623 settlements began to be formed, first by a number of Walloons on Manhattan and Long Island, while Fort Orange (Albany) was founded on the upper Hudson. The Indians, found at first to be tractable, were induced to part with their lands, and from them not only Manhattan and Staten Islands were acquired by Peter Minuit and Michael Pauw, but Killian Van Rensselaer also secured holdings in the Albany region; while colonists, including French Huguenots and English Puritans, were encouraged to settle by the cancelling of the Dutch company's monopoly of trade. For a time, however, there was trouble with the Algonquins, and settlements in the neighborhood of New Amsterdam were destroyed and the colony threatened with extinction. Under Governor Stuyvesant (1647-64) the times were more or less stormy, but the colony grew apace. In the last year of Stuyvesant's rule New Amsterdam was confronted by the presence of an English fleet come to enforce the title of the region given by Charles II to the Duke of York, his brother. With the surrender of the garrison, Dutch rule, save in 1673-4, came to a close, and New Amsterdam gave place to its present title of New York. Under the English crown the colony remained until the Revolution, being under the control and sway of over thirty colonial governors. During this period there at times were menacing movements on the border settlements; there also were the harassing hostilities of the French and their dusky allies in 1757-63, the period of the French and Indian War; besides collisions during the era preceding the Revolution between the colonists who had grown restive under monarchical rule and the harsh sway of gubernatorial authority. The battle of Saratoga (1777) was the turning-point of the American Revolution, and it, with the battles of Oriskany and Walloomsac, two more of the most important battles of the Revolution, was fought in New York. New York also was the scene of considerable fighting in its northern area during the War of 1812-14, a conflict which bore heavily upon the border settlements from the Niagara district to the eastern end of Lake Ontario and on the St. Lawrence borders from Ogdensburg to the region round Lake Champlain. With peace came the era of canal construction, internal development, increasing colonization and, later, the beginnings of the railway system and improved highways. The state bore its share of the responsibilities and burdens entailed by the Civil War. Since then its progress has been continuously substantial and gratifying. See Schuyler's Colonial New York; Lossing's Empire State; Robert's New York in the Revolution; and Phisterer's New York in the War of the Rebellion.

New York City. Manhattan Island, the heart of the second largest city in the world, is only 1³⁄₅ to 2¹⁄₂ miles wide and 13¹⁄₂ miles long. A good pedestrian could walk across it in thirty minutes, and he could walk its length from the Battery, up Broadway, to Spuyten Duyvil Creek in half a working day. The island covers 41¹⁄₂ square miles. In this small space were crowded at the time Greater New York was organized (1898) 1,850,000 human beings. To this number must be added the 200,000 strangers normally there. In the daytime this number is swelled another million by those who work in the city but sleep from five to fifty miles away. Subtracting the park-area and other unoccupied portions, New York's resident population averages 50,000 to the square mile. In the lower East Side, below 14th Street and east of Broadway, is to be found the most densely populated spot in the world.

To the nonresident New York City seems a hopeless confusion. The mountain-like ridges of skyscrapers at the lower end of Manhattan dominate a scene that has not its match for impressiveness of wealth, power and human achievement anywhere in the modern or the ancient world. Its tangle of waterways is arched high with bridges, tunnelled under with subways, swarming with shipping and woven by flying shuttles of ferry-boats. Its islands and bordering mainlands bristle for miles with docks and slips. Farther than the eye can see, in every direction, stretch endless streets of tall, crowded buildings, filled with processions of millions of restless human beings.

All its confusion, however, will fall into lovely order if you erase from mind the works of man and catch your first glimpse of the region as it appeared to the eyes of Henry Hudson, the English navigator in the employ of the Dutch East India Company in 1609. No outlook on Sandy Hook noted his arrival in New York's lower bay. He sailed through the Narrows, the mile-wide strait between Long and Staten Islands that is used to-day by oceangoing steamers. In the middle of the 12 square miles of the upper bay is Bedloe's Island, where now Bartholdi's statue of Liberty holds her torch 305 feet in the air. Farther in is Ellis Island, where emigrants are now landed. Lying to the right is Governor's Island, now headquarters of the military department of the Atlantic. At the northern end of the bay, exactly opposite The Narrows, its length forming the eastern bank of Hudson River, Manhattan Island occupies the center of the stage.

In 1609 it was a wild and beautiful spot, the lower end covered with forests and sloping pasture. A clearly defined ridge extends up its center along the line followed by Broadway to-day, rising to rocky hills known later as Harlem Heights, Mount Morris and Murray Hill. In the northeast are marshy plains known now as Harlem Flats. The entire island is underlaid with rock, sometimes a hundred feet below the surface, that supports the weight of the city to-day. Hudson would not recognize the island now, for its hills, which rose 250 feet in the north, have been cut down and graded and built over with residences of moderate height, while ridges, ranges and peaks of skyscrapers, with ravine and canyon-like streets between, have risen from 300 to 800 feet in the lower end.

Land at Battery Park where the Dutch built a warehouse fort in 1623. All the shores around the harbor maybe seen from this point. To the west, beyond the Hudson, lies the Jersey shore, covered by Jersey City and Hoboken. To the northeast, over the Harlem, lies the mainland of New York state; and to the southeast is Long Island with Brooklyn. East River, which separates Manhattan from Long Island, is not a river but a strait connecting upper New York Bay with Long Island Sound. It is long and winding, a mile wide at its narrowest point, and contains three large islands — Ward's, Randall's and Blackwell's — that are occupied chiefly by the city's institutions and prisons. Brooklyn Navy-Yard occupies ¾ of a mile of the Long Island shore of East River. Since the blowing up of the rocks in Hell Gate Pass in 1876 and in 1885, oceangoing steamers are able to enter the upper bay from the Sound. The harbor is closed on the south by the beautiful, wooded slopes of Staten Island.

These natural boundaries of water separate Greater New York into five boroughs: Manhattan; Brooklyn; Queen's, made up of Long Island City, Flushing, Jamaica and part of Hempstead; the Bronx on the mainland across Harlem River and Spuyten Duyvil Creek; and Richmond or Staten Island.

United under one municipal government in 1898 with an aggregate of 3,437,200 people, in 1910 the number had increased to 4,766,883. Jersey City and Hoboken, with their population of 260,000, are natural parts of the metropolis; but, as they lie in New Jersey, they cannot be annexed. By the last census it was shown that more than 5,000,000 are now living within a radius of 25 miles from Battery Park.

Although Manhattan Island was settled by white men — bought for trumpery beads, brass ornaments and bright cloth — nearly 300 years ago; and though Brooklyn, New Jersey and Staten Island were occupied before 1640, the importance of New York City dates back little more than a century. Until after the Revolutionary War it was outranked by Boston and Philadelphia. Before 1825 and the opening of the Erie Canal to Buffalo, its inland trade extended beyond Albany only by wagonroad. As the Dutch colony of New Amsterdam, it existed only forty years, and as an Indian trading post. In 1664 it was captured by the Duke of York, afterwards James II of England.

At that time it had 1,500 people, and the Dutch had so stamped their character, architecture, customs and language on the colony, that it remained Dutch for a hundred years, although an English colony. Descendants of wealthy Dutchmen who took up manories along the Hudson form the oldest aristocracy of New York to-day. The Bowery, Broadway, Bowling Green, Wall Street, Pearl Street, De Lancey Slip recall old Dutch days, as do Harlem and Spuyten Duyvil, Hoboken, Yonkers and points far up the Hudson. The foundation of the city's wealth, in Dutch colonial days, in furs, then in its windmills which gave it the monopoly in the bolting of flour for export, are set forth on New York's city-seal. It displays the four wooden sails of a mill, flanked by two beaver and by two flour-barrels.

The end of the Revolutionary War left New York in a deplorable condition — half of it destroyed by fire, business dead. The first sidewalks were not laid, nor the houses numbered, until 1790. In 1800 the city had 60,000 people and extended to 14th Street. The invention of the steamboat in 1807 gave the place its first real start. The opening of the Erie Canal (1825) extended its trade to Chicago, then a military post. New York linked the Old World with the new west. By 1830 it had 200,000 people. Before the first railroads were built to the west it had established its supremacy as the center of trade, finance, art, literature and fashion. In 1833 it had, in The Sun, the first morning newspaper to be sold by boys on the street for two cents. In 1842 it amazed the world by bringing water from Croton River, forty miles up the Hudson, through a stone aqueduct and over Harlem River on a high stone-pier bridge. The Croton waterworks took seven years for construction, cost $9,000,000 and delivered 95,000,000 gallons of water a day, a sufficient supply for the next half century. A second aqueduct had to be built in the 80's; and a new system is now under way in which nine villages are to be destroyed to make room for a reservoir. Brooklyn has its own system of waterworks in streams and sunken wells on Long Island. In 1853 New York held the first American worldfair in Crystal Palace on Murray Hill, and in 1856 it set aside Central Park and laid out upper Manhattan Island in broad parallel streets. The lower part of the city, below 14th Street and Union Square, is a maze of narrow, winding streets. For five or six blocks back from the water they follow all the turns of the shore.

At the beginning of the Civil War New York had 800,000 people, Chicago 100,000, and railroads had extended trade to the Mississippi. In 1878 the first elevated road was opened in the city; in 1883 Brooklyn Bridge. Harlem River had already been bridged, and railroads from the Hudson valley and New England entered Manhattan from the north. Western and southern traffic terminated at Jersey City, and transfer was made by ferry. Long Island traffic terminated in Brooklyn and Long Island City. By 1870, when Brooklyn was called “New York's bed-room” the ferry-lines were congested, and bridging the East River had become a necessity. The engineering difficulties seemed insurmountable and the cost prohibitive. The only solution, if oceangoing steamers were still to use the channel freely and communication between the cities to be constant and uninterrupted, was the suspension bridge with a wide middle span that should spring clear above ships' masts. Brooklyn Bridge was built — 1¹⁄₅ miles long, with a middle span of ¹⁄₃ of a mile, suspended on 16-inch cables 135 feet above water. It took 13 years to build, and has cost $21,000,000. It has a roadway 85 feet wide, with room for foot-passengers, street-cars and railway tracks. But even this great engineering work is surpassed by Williamsburg Bridge, opened in 1903. Two more suspension bridges across East River have been built: the Queensboro Bridge

NEW YORK SUBWAY AT 116TH STREET

and the Manhattan Bridge, opened in the year 1909.

New York's two great problems have been housing and transportation, and most of its colossal engineering works have aimed at the solution of one or the other. The four bridges across East River are supplemented by three tunnels under it. The first was built by the Long Island Railroad; the second by the Belmont street-car system to Long Island City, to connect surface-lines. The last is the Brooklyn extension of the subway system, running from the Battery. This consists of two steel tubes, ten feet in diameter, lined and covered with concrete and connected by a diaphragm arch like the Siamese Twins. It is a mile and a quarter long and cost $10,000,000.

There has never been any question of bridging the Hudson, whose channel is more than a mile wide. The Pennsylvania railroad first tunneled under it from Jersey City to get a terminal on Manhattan at 32nd Street. This continues through a subway across the city and connects with the Long Island Railroad's tunnel under East River. The McAdoo tunnels are in two pairs, connected by the Jersey City subway and running to the Rapid Transit Railroad subway on Manhattan. This means that one may go under the Hudson and East Rivers, across New York under the skyscrapers, from Jersey City to Brooklyn Heights. On Manhattan itself, in addition to the surface lines, there are four parallel lines of elevated tracks from the docks to Spuyten Duyvil, three of them crossing the Harlem into the Bronx. And there is the subway!

By 1899, to use a chemical expression, New York was populated to the point of saturation. More and more people had to get away from Manhattan Island at night, and no more streets were available for cars. The subway was built by the city at a cost of $35,000,000 and leased to the constructing company for 75 years for a percentage of the receipts,^[1] an experiment in municipal ownership that is being watched with interest by other cities. The subway runs northward from the Battery, branching north of Central Park, one branch running north through Harlem to 230th Street, the other northeast under Harlem River to the Zoological Park in the Bronx. It has a total length of 21 miles, the longest tunnel in the world. By tunnels under the Hudson and East River the subway is connected with Jersey City and Brooklyn.

Up to Central Park the Rapid Transit Underground Railroad was excavated from the surface. A steel-cage tube was built in the trench, lined and covered with concrete, roofed over and a street paving of asphalt laid on. It is lighted by sky-lights of bulls-eye paving glass. Under Central Park it is tunnelled. It crosses a valley on a viaduct, then branches and bores through the higher levels of Harlem and the Bronx. In places it descends to 100 feet below the surface, and the stations are hollowed out of solid rock. On March 19, 1913, contracts were let for an additional subway system to cost $326,000,000.

The business center of New York refused to spread. Wall Street, the financial heart of the metropolis, is only four blocks from the Battery, the City Hall three quarters of a mile. Two miles north, at Union Square and Broadway, is the center of the publishing business. A half mile farther, at Broadway and 23d, the famous "flat-iron" building and the tower of Madison Square Garden dominate the region of hotels and theaters. This business section is about 2½ miles long by one wide. The entire harbor frontage of Manhattan, from West 70th Street on the Hudson to East 40th Street on East River, is lined with docks and slips, backed by great warehouses of exporting companies.

“The City,” where money is made, could expand only in two directions — northward or skyward. The invention of the steel-cage or Chicago-construction building and of the passenger elevator made it possible to grow skyward. You can get your best idea of the number and magnitude of the skyscrapers from Brooklyn Bridge. The pedestrian in lower Manhattan passes from one shadowy canyon to another. He can well believe that these tall buildings will increase New York's office-capacity ten-fold to twenty-fold. Crowds never tire of watching the steel bridges set up on end and closed in with mere weather-curtains of brick and stone. But the most amazing part of the engineering work is far underground. To sustain the enormous weight of these buildings it is necessary to sink bridge caissons to bed-rock, sometimes 100 feet below the surface, on which to rest the piers. The work underground often costs a quarter-million dollars. The superstructure rises, usually, from 16 to 22 stories or 300 to 400 feet. The Woolworth Building, on Broadway between Park Place and Barclay Street, set a new standard, with its 55 stories rising 790 feet in the air. Eiffel Tower, with its 984 feet, is the only work of man on earth that is higher, and there are said to be no mechanical difficulties to prevent the erection of buildings of 100 stories. The Singer Building is as noteworthy for beauty as for height. Seen from Brooklyn Bridge, its proportions, grace and detail remind one of the beautiful Shepherd's Tower of Giotto in Florence. It proves that a sky-scraper may be as beautiful as it is useful and wonderful.

Realty has advanced in price with the advance in the rental space that may be erected on a given plot of ground. The record price was made in the sale of the southwestern corner of Wall Street and

Broadway, for $576 a square foot. The average rental of office room is $2 a square foot per annum or $25 a month for an office 10x15 feet. This, however, includes elevator and janitor service, heat, hot and cold water, toilet rooms and lighting. The cost of maintenance of the larger buildings, including superintendence, taxes, insurance and repairs, runs up to $100,000 a year.

To detail the enormous volume and varied character of New York's public and private business, which exceeds that of the Netherlands, Spain or Mexico, would require volumes. We can give only an idea of their magnitude by the statistics for a year. The city spends $200,000,000 a year in public expenses, of which $35,000,000 go into permanent improvements, ⅓ as much as the Federal government spends. Its public debt of $698,000,000 is three times that of Mexico. Eighty per cent of this sum is raised in taxation on the real estate, which is valued at $7,044,192,674 and is increasing at the rate of $150,000,000 a year. The schools absorb $30,000,000 a year. There are 528 buildings of all kinds with an enrollment of 702,897 and a teaching force of 18,923. The fire-department has 131 engine-houses and 4,333 employes. The police number 9,920. The city maintains 70 parks with an acreage of 6,692, streets, sewers, waterworks, bridges, public docks, a normal and city college, a city library in New York and Brooklyn with numerous branches, public hospitals and corrective institutions and municipal courts. It keeps up two zoological gardens, a botanical garden and an aquarium in Battery Park.

The amount of private business is indicated by the bank clearings, exports and imports. In one year total banking transactions aggregated over $100,000,000,000 carried on through nearly 300 national, state and savings banks and trust companies. The imports for 1909 were $909,606,851, an increase of 60 per cent, in 20 years, and the exports $767,968,283, an increase of 100 per cent, in twenty years. One hundred and twenty seagoing steamers make regular trips from New York to ports all over the world. Of the 1,041,570 emigrants who arrived in the United States in one year, 786,094 entered through Ellis Island. They came from 40 different countries, and are represented by 47 foreign consuls resident in the city. Fully three fourths of the population is of foreign birth or parentage, many of the Jews, Germans and Irish having become wealthy, while the hordes now coming from southern and eastern Europe keep the ranks of skilled and unskilled labor filled.

New York's financial and commercial interests are on so enormous a scale that they overshadow its great manufacturing industries. It makes vast quantities of clothing, boots and shoes, cigars, furniture, foundry and plumbers' castings, jewelry, machinery

and musical instruments. It has sugar-refineries, packing-houses, flour, coffee and spice mills, marble and stonecutting yards; and makes milliner's supplies.

The visitor will save time, money and patience by getting a good guide-book and map with transportation routes shown upon it. To read Washington Irving's Knickerbocker and Thomas A. Janvier's Old New York will greatly increase one's pleasure in visiting old colonial and revolutionary points of interest. It is the strangest thing to find beautiful old Trinity Church and its graveyard full of ancient tombs, at Broadway and Wall Street. Here lies the body of Peter Stuyvesant, last of the Dutch governors. A catalogue is necessary to an enjoyment and understanding of the treasures of the Metropolitan Museum of Art. You will want to see Columbia University, established as King's College in 1756; the Hall of Fame on University Heights; the Cathedral of St. John the Divine, built at a cost of $6,000,000, covering three city-blocks; Grant's tomb on Riverside Drive; the Museum of Natural History and the Egyptian obelisk in Central Park; the statue of Nathan Hale by Macmonnies and that of Farragut by St. Gaudens. You will want to go to the top of a few of the great skyscrapers; see the famous palaces on Fifth Avenue; visit a few of the 66 opera-houses and theaters; and lunch or dine at some of the hotels and restaurants that figure in stories and news of New York. You will want, no less, to go down the Bowery and into the queer, crowded foreign quarter of the East Side. New York is the oldest and newest and greatest thing in America; an epitome of our history and the essence of our achievement.

New York Public Library was established in 1895 by the consolidation of Astor Library (q. v.) Lenox Library and the Tilden Trust, with which were later included New York Library and its 42 city libraries, endowed by the munificence of Andrew Carnegie. The new home of the consolidated institutions is the palatial building in Bryant Park, facing Fifth Avenue on the west and close to 42nd Street. The library, besides its other equipments, has shelf room for not far from two million volumes. This monumental institution, provided by the city and in part to be maintained by it, consists of a union, by agreement, with the several trustees of the specific libraries named, with their corporate endowments, together with other free libraries which have elected to be consolidated with it. The chief associated and affiliated institutions, in addition to Astor Library, embrace Lenox Library, founded in 1870 as a gift to the city by the late James Lenox, with many valuable paintings and objects of art which he had collected and inherited, and the Tilden Trust,

comprising 20,000 volumes and two million dollars, deeded by will in 1884 by Samuel Jones Tilden for the establishment and endowment of a public library in New York City. With these institutions have been incorporated the city's Free Circulating Library and other similar free libraries, in addition to the scheme of branch libraries which the city obtained through the liberality of Mr. Carnegie by his gift of $5,200,000. To the Lenox bequest have been added several other substantial collections and property gifts, contributed by relatives of the original donor.

New York [City] University, an institution of higher learning in New York City. It had its inception at a meeting of citizens of high standing on Jan. 4, 1830. A committee appointed at this meeting received a large number of subscribers to the establishment of a new university on a “liberal and comprehensive foundation.” The first university council was elected by these subscribers on April 18, 1831. University College opened in the following year. The first building was erected on Washington Square in 1835. The law-school was opened the same year, the medical school in 1841, the school of applied science in 1862, the graduate school in 1886, the school of pedagogy in 1890, the veterinary college in 1898, and the school of commerce in 1900. The university comprises eight distinct faculties and schools of matriculants under its council and, in addition, the summer-school and the woman's law-class, both made up of nonmatriculants who are enrolled without examination. The era of greatest development was from 1890 to 1900. In 1891 22 acres of land, now known as University Heights, overlooking Harlem River, were acquired. Several buildings have been erected, in which some of the schools are now accommodated. The library, completed in 1900, is the chief architectural feature with its open colonnade, the Hall of Fame, extending halfway around and overlooking the Harlem. The library in 1907 contained 84,000 volumes. The university had 108 professors, 57 lecturers, 52 instructors, 38 assistants and 84 other officers; and enrolled 3,277 students in all schools. The grounds and buildings at University Heights, Washington Square and First Ave., between 25th and 26th Streets have a valuation of $3,500,000. The university has a productive endowment of $1,200,000 and an annual income, including $40,000 from subscribers, of $340,000. The university-council has authority to confer about 20 different academic degrees.

New York, University of the State of, is a department of state and also is a federation of nearly 2,000 institutions of higher and secondary education. Its object is to promote such education. Its

organization includes educational agencies as diverse as academies and extension-courses, colleges and libraries, high schools and museums, and professional or technical schools, study-classes and universities. It is governed by the governor, lieutenant-governor, secretary of state and superintendent of instruction, whose public office makes them regents, and by 19 regents elected as such by popular vote. They control the charters of educational institutions; confer honorary degrees; appoint boards to examine candidates for the professions; and distribute funds. They also supervise secondary institutions and professional education. The university consists of the administrative, collegiate, high-school and home-education departments, the state library and the state museum. It originated in 1784, Alexander Hamilton, James Duane, Ezra L'Hommedieu and other men of mark being its authors. The idea of an educational government, distinct from every teaching institution but bringing all into vital relations with the state, was reached later. New York's whole system of higher professional and technical education rests on the supervision of education in high schools and academies by the university. It has stimulated the improvement of commercial education and of business schools. The state library has over 1,064,865 manuscripts, pamphlets and volumes. The museum includes seven departments; engages in practical scientific experiment and pure research; and possesses extensive and valuable collections. Albany is the headquarters of the university.

New Zea′land lies in the Pacific about 1,200 miles southeast of Australia and is the largest island in that ocean. It was discovered by Tasman in 1642. Captain Cook took possession for England in 1769. Settlement began about 1820. It is a British colony, with a local government extending to 1852. There are two principal islands, known as North Island and Middle Island, beside South or Stewart Island and some small outlying islets. The total area is estimated at 104,751 square miles, with a population (1911) of 1,009,244, exclusive of aborigines who chiefly are Maoris (62,184 in number). There were 2,570 Chinese. The chief town is Auckland, with a population, including suburbs, of 102,676. Wellington (70,729) is the seat of government. The other towns of note are Christchurch (80,193) and Dunedin (64,237). Of volcanic origin, New Zealand has chains of high mountains, hot geyser springs and other natural features of bold and varied character, incident to its eruptive origin. It has a temperate climate favorable to the growth of rich, succulent grasses and the rearing of sheep and cattle. Its area under crop in 1911 exceeded 16,000,000 acres, while 17,000,000 remained under forest, and

9,000,000 were barren mountain tops, lakes and worthless country. Large amounts of capital are invested not only in agriculture and mining, but in meat-freezing and preserving, in tanning, wool scouring and factories for butter and cheese. Besides the wool crop and the farm and dairy products, there is a large annual export of tallow, hides, skins and leather, together with gold, valued at $10,000,000 for the yearly output. Progress was long retarded by wars with the Maoris, a magnificent race of barbarians. There are two houses of parliament, the members of both of which are paid. In the popular chamber sit four Maori members, representing native districts under the Maori representative act. There is no state church, nor is any state aid given to any religion. The school system is administered by an educational department under a minister, assisted by education boards and school committees. The University of New Zealand is solely an examining body, awarding scholarships to be held by students at affiliated colleges. These are Otago University at Dunedin, with 35 professors; Canterbury College at Christchurch, with 18 professors; Auckland University College, with 14 professors; and Victoria College, Wellington, with nine professors, including lectures at each. All are endowed with land, and have over 1,500 students in attendance. Public schools numbered 2,096, teachers 4,408 and pupils 156,324. There were 318 private schools with 18,981 pupils; three schools of mines; four normal schools; five central schools of art; 11 industrial schools; and 100 Maori schools. Most of the railways belong to the state and yield a good annual revenue; the gross mileage in both islands is 2,604 miles. In the chief towns there are tramways worked by cables, steam motors or electricity. New Zealand in 1899 offered a military force to the imperial government for service in South Africa. It is world-famous for its experiments in statesmanship and the nationalization of industry.

New′ark, N. J., county-seat of Essex County, and a port of entry, lies on Passaic River, nine miles from New York. It is a handsome city, with small parks and wide, shaded streets. It has a city-hall, court-house, public library and many churches, but its main feature is the 400 or more manufactories of brass and iron ware, hardware, machinery, trunks, saddlery, boots, shoes and hats. The city was settled by a Connecticut colony in 1666 and chartered as a city in 1836. Population 347,469.

Newark, O., county-seat of Licking County, lies on Licking River, 31 miles northeast of Columbus. It is a manufacturing city, turning out machinery, furnaces, safes, rope goods, steel rails, boilers, flour and glassware. This city has one of the largest bottle-factories in the world and the largest stove-works. Population 25,404.

Newbern (nū′bẽrn), N. C., city, county-seat of Craven County, about 100 miles southeast of Raleigh. It is the port of entry of the Pamlico district; is at the junction of Neuse and Trent Rivers; and is served by three railroads, besides having steamers to New York and other Atlantic ports. The important industrial establishments are a turpentine-distillery, carriage and canning factories, fertilizing works, gristmills, planing mills, shingle-factories, a shipyard and the Atlantic and North Carolina Railroad shops. A noteworthy building is the government building, which contains a custom house, a postoffice and a court-house. Separate schools are maintained for white and colored, and the city has several churches. The electric-light plant and waterworks are owned by the city. The place was settled in 1710 by Swiss and Germans, and named New Berne after Berne, Switzerland. It was incorporated as a city in 1723. Population 9,961.

New′berry, John Strong, an American scientist, was born at Windsor, Conn., Dec. 22, 1822, educated at Western Reserve College and Cleveland Medical College, graduating from the latter in 1848. He accepted an appointment in 1855 as surgeon and geologist to accompany the United States exploring expedition to the country between San Francisco and Columbia River. In 1857 he explored the cañon of the Colorado, devoting nearly a year to the task. In 1859 he made scientific trips through southern Colorado, Utah, northern Arizona and New Mexico. During the Civil War he was in charge of all the operations of the United States Sanitary Commission throughout the Mississippi valley. At the close of the war he was appointed professor of geology in the School of Mines, Columbia College, New York. In 1869 he superintended the geological survey of Ohio. He was elected a member of nearly all the scientific associations of his own country and of Europe, and received the Murchison medal from the Geological Society of London in 1888. Perhaps his first publication was his report upon The Geology, Botany and Zoology of Northern California and Oregon; and his latest was The Paleozoic Fishes of North America. He died at New Haven, Conn., Dec. 7, 1892.

Newberry, Walter Loomis, American merchant and philanthropist, was born at East Windsor, Conn., Sept. 18, 1804. He removed to Chicago in 1833, where he amassed a fortune in trade and banking. He left over $2,000,000 with which to erect and maintain a library. The building which was a result of this bequest fronts upon Walton Place, Chicago, and is one of the architectural ornaments of the city. The library it contains is one of the finest

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ence libraries in America. Mr. Newberry died at sea, Nov. 6, 1868.

New'burgh, N. Y., capital of Orange County, lies on the right bank of the Hudson, in the beautiful Highlands. It has foundries, boiler works and shipyards; manufactures woolen and cotton goods, leather, soap, brushes and paints; and ships large quantities of butter, grain, flour and coal. In the Revolutionary War the American army disbanded here on June 23, 1783. Population 27,805.

New'buryport', Mass , a city and port of entry, is on the south bank of the Merrimac, three miles from its mouth and 37 miles by rail northeast of Boston. At Newburyport the river is spanned by a chain bridge, America's first suspension bridge, built in 1792, A long, shady, high street, with a pond of six acres, is the city's chief ornament. Shipbuilding is carried on, and there are a number of large cotton and shoe factories and a silver factory, besides manufactories of combs, hats and pumps. Here George White-field, who died in 1770, is buried, and here Wm. Lloyd Garrison was born. Population 14,949

New'castle=upon=Tyne, a city and county by itself, lies upon Tyne River ,in Northumberland, 117 miles south of Edinburgh. During the Roman occupation of Britain it was a military station, and afterward became a monastic settlement and was known as Monkchester. In 1080 Robert of Normandy, son of William the Conqueror, constructed a fort which he called Newcastle. The city is built mostly on slopes and rising ground, and shows the combined effects of ancient and modern architecture. Among interesting buildings are the Norman Keep, the Black Gate, the St. Nicholas cathedral and -the churches of St. John and St. Andrew. Newcastle has a large public library, two colleges, the Royal Infirmary, Jesus' Hospital and the Keelmen's Hospital. Its principal manufactures are marine and locomotive engines, machinery, heavy ordnance, carriages, harness, lead, glass, earthenware, cement, brick, tile. It has since the i3th century been the most important coal-shipping center in Europe Population 215,328 See histories of the town by J. R. Boyle and others.

New'comb, Simon, a distinguished mathematical astronomer, born at Wallace, Nova Scotia, March 12, 1835. Coming to the United States in 1853, he secured, through the influence of Joseph Henry, an appointment as computer on the Nautical Almanac in 1857 He graduated from Lawrence Scientific School, at Cambridge in 1858, and spent three years there as a graduate student, at the end of which time he went to the Naval Observatory in Washington as professor of mathematics in the United States navy. His work here in connection with the establishment of the 2 £-inch equatorial,

the various expeditions to observe transits of Venus and solar eclipses, his superintendence of the Nautical Almanac and his important memoirs on celestial dynamics placed him in the front rank of astronomers. In 1884 he accepted the chair of mathematics at Johns Hopkins University, while retaining his work in Washington. Professor Newcomb is a man of extraordinarily wide interests, and has thought and written much on subjects outside of his own specialty, particularly on political economy,, He has beer1 the recipient of many honorary degrees and of medrls and honorary memberships from learned "ocieties. His publications embrace Popular Astronomy^ Elements of Astronomy, The Stars, Astronomy for Everybody, Pohticat Economy and Reminiscences of an Astronomer,

Newfoundland is the most ancient of the British colonies. For over a century it was the only colony owned and governed by England in the new world. In 1497 John Cabot made the voyage from Bristol to Newfoundland, which lies north of the Gulf of St. Lawrence and Cape Breton, and is separated from Labrador by the Straits of Belle Isle, only 10 miles wide in places. Cape Breton is 50 miles distant to the south.

History. It is alleged that the West-of-England fishermen kept their profitable voyages to Newfoundland concealed from the Crown for 50 years and that they were able to (do this by bribing the officials. One writer says that it was the great trade and fishery of Newfoundland that first drew Englishmen from the narrow ?eas and made them a nation of sailors. In the reign of Elizabeth 10,000 men were employed in the Newfoundland business, which amounted to more than £500,000 a year. The English Newfoundland fishermen played a gallant part in the defeat of the Spanish Armada in 1588. Newfoundland was colonized by hard-working, humble settlers from Devonshire. Charles II sold Placentia and the western part of the island to Louis XIV, and this was the commencement of the vexed French-Shore question. The end of the seven years' conflict between England and France (1757—63) was signalized in Newfoundland by one of the most brilliant actions of the whole war, the defeat of the French and the recapture of St. Johns in 1762, The policy of England towards Newfoundland for a long time was anything but generous. A witness before a committee of the House of Commons in 1793 said: "The island of Newfoundland has been considered in all former times as a great ship moored near the Banks during the fishing-season for the convenience of English fishermen only.'* The first civil governor was appointed in 1825, and the first general election for a local House of Assembly was in 1832. Responsible government came in 1853. Not until 1881 was the railway, which has

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been built across the island, commenced. From that time the progress of the colony began. It gave life to lumbering and min-

'm8-

Physical Features. For a fast crusier Newfoundland is only four days from Ireland (1,640 miles). This fact makes plain its importance to Great Britain and Canada as a base for guarding the Atlantic route. It is larger than Ireland, being the tenth largest island in the world. It contains 42,-ooo square miles. It is the key of the St. Lawrence and, as a naval base, commands the whole trade of the northern Atlantic. Its population is 237,531, all living on the coast. There is twice as much sunshine in Newfoundland as in Great Britain. Prom June to October the climate is delightful. Its interior is an immense game pre&srve. For its size it contains more caribou (a subspecies of the European reindeer) than any other part of the world. The forests of the center and north are almost Ampe-ietrable. and furnish safe quarters for the deer. Beaver, otter and foxes are found all over the island. The Atlantic salmon is found in hundreds of streams, and the numerous lakes abound with trout. The resemblance between Newfoundland and the British Isles is remarkable, Both occupy the same relative position> the one on the northwest of Europe, the other on the northeast of America. Both the British Isles and Newfoundland were broken off from the mainland.

Resources, The ice-burdened, northern current, laden with fish, furnishes food for the cod, herring and seals, which are the mainstay of the chief industry. Newfoundland has the largest catch of cod in the world. Almost every known metallic substance of value is found. There is an abundance of iron and copper. It has a promising coal-field (undeveloped). Copper ore to the value of $17,000,000 has been exported. At Bell Island, Conception Bay, one of the most valuable iron-mines in the world has been opened recently. It is owned by the Nova Scotia Steel Company and the Dominion Iron and Steel Company. There is an immense quantity of gypsum. Only one sixth of Newfoundland is fit for agriculture. One half of .t is rough and broken. One third is covered with lakes. The value of the fisheries in 1909-10 was over $9,000,000. About $300,000 worth of lumber is exported yearly. There is an enormous quantity of small spruce and fir near the lakes and rivers. Its total exports exceed its imports in value. A large part of its food and manufactured goods it uses are bought abroad. Its export of copper and iron ore in 1909-10 amounted to $1,368,367. Exploits River (the chief center of the salmon-fishing) is the largest in Newfoundland. It runs in a northeasterly direction and is 200 miles long. Placentia Bav on the south is noted for its

valuable fisheries of cod, salmon and herring. St. Pierre and Miquelon Islands on the south belong to France, and trade heavily with Newfoundland and Canada. They are valuable as fishing-stations for French fishermen on the Banks. The fogs on the eastern coast are caused by the cold waters of the Arctic current meeting the warm waters of the Gulf Stream, The Banks of Newfoundland (elevations of the ocean-bed, 600 miles long and 200 broad) are about 100 miles from the shore.

The French, by treaty, acquired rights of fishing on part of the shore. This is called The French Shore. These rights have

Eroved injurious to Newfoundland, causing iction in various ways. There are 500 miles of railway. The governor is appointed by the king 01 England. Its legislature is elected, Its capital is St. Johns, located on St. Johns Harbor, which is said to be one of the finest in the world. Its chief industry is exporting fish. It has a good graving-dock accommodating the largest vessels. It is the nearest port in America to Europe. Its population is 31,501.

Education. The public-school system is denominational. In the old days the only schools were those supported by the various religious denominations. The schools and colleges annually prepare their pupils for written examinations, the papers being prepared in England and the answers sent to England for marking. This is done to avoid any suspicion of denominational partiality or control.

New'gate, a famous London prison, stands opposite the Old Bailey, at the end of Newgate Street. Its high, windowless walls long inclosed the principal prison of the city, but it is now under the control of the court of aldermen. It derives its name from having been the new gate to the city prior to 1218. The prison was destroyed by the fire in 1666 and rebuilt in 1780. Newgate was discontinued as a prison by the prisons bill of 1877. See Griffith's Chronicles of Newgate.

New'man (John Henry), Cardinal, a leader of the Church of England, afterwards, in 1845, a communicant of the Roman church and in 1879 a cardinal by appointment of Leo XIII, was born at London, Feb. 21, 1801, and graduated from Trinity College in 1820. In 1832 he published his first book, Arians of the Fourth Century, in which he vindicated the divine nature of Christ. In 1833 he traveled to the Mediterranean with Froude and his father for his health, and on the journey wrote most of the poems which were afterwards published as Lyra Apostolica, the object being to assert the spiritual power of the Church of England. Among these was world-famous Lead Kindly Light. On his return to England, he entered into the Tractarian movement in the Anglican church. He wrote a great many of these tracts himself, teaching that the Anglican church stands midway between the Roman Catholic and the popular Protestant. His most notable book is the Apologia pro Vita Sua, a history of his religious opinions. Disraeli and Gladstone characterized his withdrawal as a severe blow to the English church. As a Roman Catholic his works mainly are Loss and Gain, a story of a conversion; Callista, the story of an African martyr; Grammar of Assent; a volume of lectures on Anglican Difficulties; Verses on Various Occasions; and several volumes of sermons. In 1870 he opposed the declaration of papal infallibility as inopportune. To reward and conciliate the English moderates, of whom Newman was the head, Leo XIII made him a cardinal. He died at Edgbaston (Birmingham), Aug. 11, 1890. Consult Whyte's biography.

New′port, Ky., is the county-seat of Campbell County, opposite Cincinnati, on the Ohio at the mouth of Licking River. The city has large rolling mills, foundry, bolt works, steam mills, tile works, screen and window and door sash factories and also one of the largest lithographing houses in this country. Population 30,309. Fort Thomas, a U. S. military post, is located just above this city.

Newport, R. I., a city, is a port of entry and was one of the capitals till 1900. It is the most noted fashionable resort in America, and has magnificent private estates and villas. Its capacious and beautiful harbor is a great yacht rendezvous, and the city has many parks, fountains and monuments of great beauty. It has unexcelled public schools, and is the seat of St. George's and Cloyne House Schools and St. Mary's Academy. On Coaster Harbor are the U. S. war-college and naval training-school and a naval hospital. Newport possesses many points of historical interest, among them the state-house, built in 1742, now used as the county court-house; the Jewish synagogue (1762); Trinity Church (1725); Redwood Library (1748); and the “Old Stone Mill” pointed out as an alleged relic of the days of the Norsemen, but a subject of controversy. The town was settled in 1639 by Roger Williams and eight followers. Population 27,149.

Newport News, Va., a rapidly growing town and port of entry on James River, Hampton Roads, southeastern Virginia. It is the capital of Warwick County, is connected by electric railway with Hampton and Old Point Comfort, and is 14 miles north of Norfolk and 70 southeast of Richmond. Possessing a magnificent harbor, it has extensive ship-building plants, dry docks, grain elevators and capacious warehouses on its piers. It has a large foreign commerce, chiefly of grain. It has a large trade in peanuts. Its manufacturing interests are woodworking mills, lumber-mills, iron-works, shirt and shoe factories. Newport News although a young town, has an improved system of waterworks and electric light and gas plants. Population 20,205.

News′paper, a sheet of paper printed and distributed from time to time for the purpose of conveying news. The number of newspapers now in the world is estimated at 60,000. The bulk is issued as follows: United States 22,806; Germany 8,049; France, 6,681; Great Britain and Ireland, 9,500 besides 2,290 magazines and reviews; Austria-Hungary, 2,958; Italy, 2,757; Spain, 1,000; Russia, 1,000; Switzerland, 1,005; Belgium 956 and Holland 980; and Japan 1,000. Of the languages in which they are published, over 30,000 are printed in English; 7,500 in German; 6,800 in French; 1,800 in Spanish; and 1,500 in Italian. Newspapers first came into existence centuries before the Christian era when the reports of the Roman army were transmitted by the senate to the generals in all parts of the country, but for the actual newspaper we are indebted to Germany. In Augsburg, Vienna, Ratisbon and Nuremberg it was the practice, early in the 15th century, to issue news-sheets in the form of letters. Yet the first newspaper that at all covered the same idea as those of the present day was issued in Venice, by order of the Venetian government in 1566, and called the Notizie Scritte. At first they were not printed, but written out and hung up in various public places, where the people could read them on payment of a small coin. The first actual English newspaper was the Weekly News of 1622, edited and published by Nathaniel Butler. The London Weekly Courant came out in the same year. The first daily paper was the Daily Courant, which appeared, printed on one side only, in 1702. The daily circulation of newspapers in the United Kingdom is about 10,000,000. The regular system of advertising, which supports the newspaper and benefits the advertiser, did not begin until 1673, when the columns of a few papers were opened to regular classified advertisements. Some of the principal and largest newspapers of to-day are: In England the (daily) Times, Daily Mail, Telegraph, Standard, Chronicle, Star, Echo, Evening News and Post; in France the Temps, Figaro, Siècle, Petit Parisien and Petit Journal.

There are now published in the United States over 22,800 newspapers, of which about 2,472 appear daily. The first newspaper published in America was Publick Occurrences (1690), followed in 1704 by the Boston News-Letter and the Boston Gazette. At the present time a newspaper is not only a sheet for disseminating news, but apparently a leader in politics and a commentator on politics, religion, research, science, amusement, sport and social and political economy. See Baker's The Newspaper World.

Newt, a common salamander, represented by several distinct species, abundant in quiet waters of the United States and Europe. It is also called eft and triton. The common newt of the eastern United States (Diemictylus) is about three and one half inches long and is shaped like a slender lizard. It varies in color, but is commonly pale greenish above and pale yellowish below with small black specks. A variety of the common water-newt is reddish with red spots, and is found in damp places in the woods. The newts feed on insects, larvæ, snails and the like. One in California reaches a length of six inches. See Gage's Life History of the Vermillion-Spotted Newt, in the Amer. Naturalist, December, 1891.

New′ton, Mass., a city about seven miles from Boston and almost surrounded by Charles River. It is the suburban residence of many Boston people, and manufactures cloth, silk, shoddy and glue. Population 39,806.

Newton, Sir Isaac, the foremost English expounder of applied mathematics. As a natural philosopher he stands without a peer, unless, perhaps, Helmholtz is to be admitted to this category. To save space we shall first outline his chronology and then his achievements. He was born at Woolsthorpe in Lincolnshire on Christmas Day, 1642 (old style). He early showed an inventive and mechanical genius, preferring to make windmills or kites rather than indulge in the ordinary play of children. An uncle persuaded his mother to send him to Cambridge, where he entered Trinity College on June 5, 1661. In January, 1665, he graduated; in 1667 was elected fellow of Trinity. In October of 1669 he was elected Lucasian professor of mathematics. His election as fellow of the Royal Society occurred on Jan. 11, 1672. The publication of his immortal volume, the Principia, made 1687 the beginning of a new era. In four years this work was practically out of print; but not until 1713 did a second edition appear. Newton began a new rôle in 1689 as representative of Cambridge University in Parliament. In 1703 was conferred the highest honor in science to which an Englishman can aspire: the presidency of the Royal Society. Only two years elapsed until knighthood was made illustrious by being conferred upon him. The year 1697 marks his departure from Cambridge and his appointment as master of the mint, an office which he filled with distinction until his death in 1727.

His work is so profoundly influencing and so thoroughly interwoven with the entire subsequent history of physical science as to make a summary of his achievements well-nigh impossible.

1. Among his earlier studies must be mentioned the brilliant series of optical experiments by which he proved white light to be composed of many simple colors and explained the color of natural bodies. Among many other important contributions to optics may be mentioned his accurate description of the phenomena of diffraction, the cause of colors exhibited by thin plates and a measurement of the wave-length of light, though in terms of the corpuscular theory.

2. Of that branch of astronomy which is known as celestial mechanics Newton practically is the creator. Having clearly formulated the fundamental principles of dynamics, he proceeded to ask whether the facts described by Kepler’s laws (see Kepler) could not be expressed in a still simpler manner. The answer is the Principia, where he shows that all the celestial motions are mere consequences of the one general law of gravitation that the force of attraction between any two particles varies directly as the product of their masses and inversely as the square of their distances. This law was first tested by applying it to the moon’s motion about the earth; and the attraction of the earth, on this basis, was found exactly to account for the behavior of the moon. In this connection every student should be warned against the popular notion that Newton discovered the explanation of gravitation. Nothing could be further from the truth. Indeed, Newton himself expressly disclaims any such thing; and insists that, while he has succeeded in describing some of the phenomena of gravitation, he will not even venture a guess as to the cause of gravitation. It need hardly be added that today we apparently are as far from any satisfactory explanation of gravitation as in the days of Newton.

3. In mathematics his genius perhaps is best shown by the fact that he not only discovered the law of gravitation, but invented the differential calculus (q. v.) by which to discuss the facts involved. But just how the honors for the discovery of this powerful means of investigating mathematical problems are to be shared between Newton and Leibniz (q. v.) is a question which has perhaps not even yet been satisfactorily answered. See Brewster’s Life of Newton.

Newton, John, American engineer and soldier, was born at Norfolk, Va., Aug. 24, 1823, and graduated at West Point in 1842. At the outbreak of the Civil War he was engaged in the construction of fortifications along the Atlantic and Gulf coasts. Having served throughout the Peninsular campaign as brigadier, at Fredericksburg he commanded a division and rose to the rank of major-general. He rendered conspicuous services at Chancellorsville and further distinguished himself at Gettysburg. At the close of the war he returned to the engineer corps of the regular army. His greatest work of engineering was the removal of the obstruction called Hell Gate (q. v.) in East River, New York. See Blasting and New York City. After this he was given the position of chief of the engineering de- partment with the rank of brigadier in the regular army. He retired from the service in August, 1886, and was elected president of the Panama Railroad Company in 1888. He died at New York, May 1, 1895.

Ney (nd), Michel, one of the famous marshals under Napoleon, was a cooper's son, born at Sarre-Louis, Jan. 10, 1769. At the beginning of the Revolution he was an under-officer in a hussar regiment, but merit soon brought him promotion, and after the siege of Mainz in 1794 he was made adjutant-general. He earned the rank of brigadier-general under Jourdan in 1796, and for the capture of Mannheim in 1799 was made general of division. At one time he also commanded the army of the Rhine, and after the declaration he married a friend of Napoleon and was made inspector-general of cavalry. When the empire was established, he was made marshal of France. He stormed Elchingen, and for this was created Duke of Elchingen. At Jena and Eylau he served with distinction, as in Spain and Russia. At Waterloo he led the center and had five horses shot under him, but after the surrender of Paris, in flight to Switzerland, he was recognized by a costly sword he wore, and condemned by the house of peers to die for high treason, in going over to Napoleon on his return from Elba. He was shot in the Luxembourg gardens, Paris, Dec. 7, 1815.

Nez Perces (nd'per'sdz'), meaning pierced noses, a tribe of American Indians that settled in Idaho and were friendly to the whites. In 1877 some refused to accede to a treaty reducing their reservation, attacked settlers and soldiers, and fled to Montana and Dakota. They were overtaken, and the 350 survivors transferred to Indian Territory, and in 1885 sent to Idaho, some to the Colville Indians in Washington.

Ngami (n'gd'me), Lake, discovered by Livingstone in 1849, is situated in the northern extremity of the Kalahari desert in British South Africa, and is 2,810 feet above sea level. Its size depends on the rainfall in the surrounding country, but its average length is 50 miles and width from 10 to 20. Its chief tributaries are the Okovango on the northwest and the Zouga on the east.

Niag'ara, Can., a town on Lake Ontario. Capacious steamers in summer cross daily to Toronto, a favorite route from Buffalo to Toronto. It formerly was called Newark. On September 18, 1792, the pioneer parliament of Upper Canada, consisting of 16 members, met at Newark (Niagara). "The annals of the North American continent present no incident in the momentous science of government to surpass in the elements of political faith, hope and heroism the opening of the first parliament of the western province." (Watson's History.) One of the first acts of the first session established trial by jury. In the second session (1793) it abolished slavery, the first legislative body in the Empire to do so. Four of the members were Pawling, Pettit, Swayzie and Young, and many of their descendants still live in the province. Population 1,500.

Niagara ("Thunder of Waters"), a river of North America, which forms part of the boundary between New York and Ontario. It flows from Lake Erie into Lake Ontario, a course of 36 miles, during which it makes a total descent of 326 feet, about 50 feet in the rapids immediately above the great falls and nearly no feet in the seven miles of rapids below. It incloses several islands, the largest, Grand Island, being nearly 10 miles long. Four miles below this island are the most famous falls in the world. The center of the river here is occupied by Goat Island, dividing the cataract into the Horseshoe (Canadian) Fall, with a descent of 158 feet, and the American Fall, 162 to 169 feet; the outline of the former is about 2,640 feet, of the latter 1,000 feet. The volume of water which sweeps over this immense chasm is about 15,000,000 cubic feet a minute. The depth of water on the crest of the falls is less than four feet, except in a few places, notably at the apex of Horseshoe Fail, where it is about 20 feet. The limestone edge of both falls is rapidly wearing away in the center. For seven miles below the falls the river is shut in between perpendicular walls of rock from 200 to 350 feet high. Just below the cataract the river is crossed by a suspension bridge for carriages and foot-passengers, and a mile and a half further down are two railroad bridges, one a cantilever, about 100 yards apart. On both shores the lands bordering the river, for some distance above and below the falls, are under the immediate control of the respective governments. New York Park at Niagara Falls embraces 115 acres, and Queen Victoria Niagara Falls Park about 154 acres* From both sides visitors clad in waterproofs are conducted under the falls. The immense water-power supplied by the falls was utilized at Buffalo by the Pan-American exposition in 1901, and to-day is generally^ utilized in an extensive region in the vicinity of the falls. Electric displays are a further attraction to tourists and sightseers. The illuminating apparatus consists of three batteries of 50 search-lights equipped with 3o-mch and 60-inch projectors, operated by electrical engines of 3oo-horsepower. They throw a volume of light equivalent to that of 1,115,-000,000 candles,

Niagara Falls City, N. Y., a rapidly growing town in Niagara County, on Niagara River. The city is 20 miles north of Buffalo and about 13 south of Lake Ontario. The New York Central; Erie; Lehigh Valley; Michigan Central; and other railroads converge here. All have connections into Canada. Of recent years engineering skill has, by tunnels and a hydraulic canal, utilized for practical industrial purposes the enor

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mous water-power here obtainable, — a utility which Buffalo has taken advantage of. Niagara Falls City is the center of the electrochemical industries of the world. A model factory making shredded-wheat biscuit is an object of interest to thousands of annual tourists. School buildings number 14, and the enrollment is 4,560 pupils. Population 30,445.

Niagara Palls City, Ontario, Can., 83 miles from Toronto, is on Niagara River in sight of the falls. It is the center of the great power-development in Canada, transmission lines supplying Toronto. Owing to its location (a point of contact for Canadian and American railways, the only one between Montreal and Detroit), it is a noticeably busy and congested railway center. Electric railways leave it for all points, including Buffalo. Several important industries, because of cheap power and excellent transportation, have been attracted to it. Among them are silverworks, a cereal plant and electrochemical industries. Three powerful plants for the development of electrical power have been installed. They represent an expenditure of nearly $20,000,000, and have about 100,000 horse-power available for transmission. Thirty thousand horsepower has already been sold for use in the United States. The ultimate development of the three companies is estimated to be 405,000 horse-power. To accomplish this 31,050 cubic feet of water every second will be used. The suspension bridge over the river was opened for traffic in 1855. Population 10,036.

Niagara Falls Park, Ont., overlooking Niagara Falls The park consists of 196 acres. To make it as attractive as possible the commissioners appointed by the government have acquired a strip along Niagara River and lands at Queenston Heights, Fort Erie and Niagara Glen, comprising 787 acres. All that expert landscape-gardening can do has been done to show to best advantage the magnificent scenic beauty of this wonderful spot. It is wonderful not alone because of the falls and the rugged grandeur of the river-banks, but because of the rarely beautiful plant life which marks the neighborhood and for many years has proved attractive to scientists. Electric roads carry tens of thousands almost daily during the tourist months to view the falls. The Whirlpool and Dufferin Islands are grand and attractive. In winter the scenery is peculiarly beautiful. It is estimated that 174,000 cubic feet of water flow over the crest of Horseshoe Falls every second. In acquiring the land and in permanent improvements $i,-500,000 have been spent. The approaches to the park have been widened, and the shore along Niagara River is being protected with the view of forming a continuous and beautiful boulevard 33 miles in length along the river. All told, this park is one af the most

attractive spots in Canada. Not a little of the credit is due to Mr. Langmuir, chairman of the commissioners, and to Mr. Wilson, the park-superintendent. The first aim of the commissioners has been to preserve the rare natural beauty of the locality and protect it from anything savoring of the unsightly or the incongruous. Lord Dufferin, nearly 20

S^ars ago, advocated a national park as a ominion enterprise. This appearing impossible and delay involving difficulties, Premier Oliver Mowat of Ontario, specially urged by Richard Harcourt. one of his supporters, representing a Niagaran constituency, appointed a commission with power to expropriate land to acquire the property at and near the falls and convert it into a provincial* park. The wise plan thus originated has been happily and successfully completed. Thousands who have viewed the scene with awe and wonder have recalled Anthony Trollope's tribute: "Of all the sights on earth which tourists travel to see — at least of all those which I have seen — I am inclined to give the palm to the Falls of Niagara. I know of no other one thing so beautiful, glorious and powerful."

Niagara Falls, Tunnels and Power Plant. The force going to waste over the Falls of Niagara has been estimated at 7,000,000 horse-power. Such unused resources naturally attracted the attention of engineers and economists at an early day, and in 1873 a small canal utilized about 6,000 horse-power for certain mills. The invention of the dynamo and the transmission of energy by electric wire gave a new impulse to the attempt to use more of the rjower in sight. A company was organized in 1886, and chartered by the legislature of New York, having this end in view. Experts visited Europe to study approved methods of power transmission. Work was begun in 1890 by the Cataract Construction Company, and a tunnel was dug 6,837 ^ee^ l°ng» 21 feet high and 19 wide. It required three years and about $4,000,000 to complete the undertaking, The water is drawn from the river by a canal no feet wide at the end and i So at the mouth, the canal being 1,400 feet long. The water, which is brought from the river by the canal, is carried over 14 turbine wheels, each having 5,000 horse-power; and, after passing througn the turbines, it is carried away by the tunnel. Each turbine is connected with a dynamo of 5,000 horsepower, and the electric current is thus brought to Buffalo, 18 miles distant, where it is used for lighting the city, operating tramways in the streets, pumping water for city use and running machinery in various factories. It is expected that the power thus generated will be distributed over all the western part of New York by improved processes of transmission. In 1901-2 the original plant was more than duplicated by the construction of a new wheel-pit connected

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with the old one by a passage 130 feet below the surface. The discharge tunnel was extended to the new pit, making the tunnel 7,437 feet long. In the new power-house and pit were installed 11 turbines and dynamos, each unit having 5,000 horse-power. So the total production at this point became 105,000 horse-power instead of 70,000 as previously.

Nibelungenlied (nē′ bĕ-lo͝ong′ ĕn-lēt), a German epic, ranking as one of the greatest poems of the world. The oldest elements of the work must have been long current in the form of popular songs; but the incidents of the story seem to have been fused into one narrative before the 12th century, though by whom it was done is unknown. The story of the poem is as follows: Siegfried, the son of the king of the Netherlands, becomes possessor of the fabled wealth of the Nibelungs, which carries with it evil to its possessor. He marries Kriemhild, sister of Gunther, king of Worms, and helps Gunther to win Brunhilde of Iceland. Then there is a dispute as to whether Siegfried or Gunther be the greater, and Brunhilde induces Hagen to murder Siegfried. Kriemhild after some years marries Etzel (Attila), king of the Huns. After Kriemhild became possessor of the Niebelungen wealth, Hagen took it from her and sank it in the Rhine. After several years Kriemhild, still mourning for Siegfried and desiring to be revenged for his death, asked her brother to visit her at her court. This he did, with 11,000 armed Burgundians, and the remainder of the poem is devoted to the wars and sufferings of the Burgundians. See English translations by Lettsom, Foster, Barham and Birch. See also Carlyle’s Miscellanies, Vol. III.

Nicæa (nī́-sē′ ȧ), a city of ancient Bithynia in Asia Minor, lies on the eastern shore of Lake Ascania. It was built in 316 B. C. by Antigonus and named Antigoneia, but was changed to Nicæa by Lysimachus in honor of his wife. It is famed as the seat of two ecumenical councils: the first held by Emperor Constantine in 325 A. D.; and the second called by the Empress Irene in 787.

Nicaragua (nē′ kȧ-rä′ gwȧ), a Central American republic, stretches across the isthmus from the Caribbean to the Pacific and lies between Honduras on the north and Costa Rica on the south. It has an area of about 49,200 square miles. The Central American Cordillera extends through the country from northwest to southeast, not far from the Pacific coast. From these the surface sinks rapidly westward, and the country is studded with large lakes, the largest being Nicaragua (115 miles long and 45 broad) and Managua (35 miles long and 20 wide). This tableland is also marked by isolated peaks and volcanic cones. On the west lie Managua the capital (population 35,000); Leon, Granada, Chinandega, Rivas and the harbors of the Gulf of Fonseca, Salinas Bay and Corinto; and on the east the harbor of Greytown on San Juan River. The principal rivers are the Coco (350 miles), San Juan, Bluefields and Rio Grande. Minerals are found, but only of late have they begun to be worked. In 1898 the shipment of gold-dust amounted to 16,242 ounces. The rich soil yields corn, sugar, cocoa, rice, tobacco and indigo. The natural products are mahogany, rosewood, logwood, fustic, sandalwood, india-rubber, dye woods, medicinal plants and gums. The chief exports (besides gold) embrace coffee, rubber, bananas, timber, cattle and hides.

Nicaragua was a precolumbian center of civilization. Columbus sailed along the coast in 1502, and in 1524 Granada was founded by Spaniards, who had entered two years before. From 1560 to 1821 the state was a dependency of Guatemala, but in that year became independent and so remained for sixteen years. Then until 1865 it had a troublesome and warlike time, but since then it has made great strides toward peace and prosperity. In 1894 a new constitution was proclaimed, which was amended in December, 1896. By this the legislative power is vested in a congress of one house. Population, including uncivilized Indians, 500,000. Consult Bancroft’s History of Pacific States. See America, Central.

Nicaragua Canal. The plan to cut a ship-canal through Central America by way of San Juan River and Lake Nicaragua was taken up in earnest in 1884 and a treaty made between the United States and Nicaragua. The Nicaragua Canal Company was formed and the canal was begun at Greytown in 1889. But, after expending $4,000,000, the company found the burden greater than they had anticipated, and sought an

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sure, but it easily dissolves in nitric acid. It is now used as an alloy with copper and zinc in German silver and is largely used for plating articles of iron and steel. In some alloys it is used for coins. It is also extensively used in steel for armor plates, cannon etc. The ore, in different forms, is found in Canada, Norway, Germany, Hungary, France and the United States.

Nic′otine. See Poisons.

Niebuhr (nḗ′ bo͞or′), Barthold Georg, a distinguished modern historian, was born at Copenhagen, Aug. 27, 1776. After careful study at Kiel, he devoted himself to the study of natural sciences at London and Edinburgh. In 1800 he married and entered the Danish state service, from which he resigned in 1806 to enter the Prussian state service. From 1810 to 1812 he gave a course of lectures at the new University of Berlin on Roman history. From 1816 to 1823 he was German ambassador to the papal court. He died at Bonn, Prussia, Jan. 2, 1813. Some of his works are Lectures on the History of Rome, Lectures on Ancient History and History of Byzantium.

Niemen (nē′ men), a river in western Russia, rises a few miles south of the city of Minsk, divides into two branches below Tilsit, and empties into Kurisches Haff by four mouths to each branch. It is 500 miles long and navigable as far as Grodno.

Ni′ger, the name generally applied to a remarkable river system of western equatorial Africa, emptying into the Gulf of Guinea. It was thought to be a tributary of the Nile; then of the Kongo; and then supposed to terminate in an inland basin; but the work of Mungo Park and others has settled all but 70 or 80 miles of its length. The Niger proper is 2,600 miles long, and its drainage basin has an area of 1,023,280 square miles. The headwaters are in the present states of Samory, near the headwaters of the Senegal; but the Tembi, rising in the Loma Mountains, 3,000 feet above the sea, is the actual source. From the source to Timbuktu the river has only a few small tributaries, but some distance below here it is joined by the Benuë, or Mother of Waters, traveling 860 miles from the east. Thence the river flows to its mouth, where a beautiful delta is formed. The navigation is free, but the trade, chiefly in palm oil, is under the control of Great Britain. See Joseph Thomson’s Mungo Park and the Niger.

Niger′ia, Northern and Southern (formerly the Niger Territories, until Jan. 1, 1900, administered by the Royal Niger Company, but now under the control of the British Crown, along with Lagos colony). Nigeria covers an area in western Africa estimated at 310,000 square miles, with a population placed at 25 millions. It is bounded on the north by the French Military Territory, on the east by Kamerun, on the south by the Gulf of Guinea and on the west by Dahomé. For administrative purposes this vast region is divided into two governments, those of Northern and Southern Nigeria. They embrace the area once the Fula or Sokoto empire, with the subordinate sultanates of Gandu, Kano, Bornu, Benin, etc., watered by the Niger and its tributaries. On the Gulf of Guinea the territories have a seaboard of about 120 miles in length, on which are the towns Akassa, at the mouth of the Niger, the British naval headquarters; Bonny, Wari, Old Calabar and New Calabar. A military force is stationed in southern Nigeria, partly at Asaba and partly at Akassa. The capital of Northern Nigeria is Zungeru, a new one in the direction of Kano, eastward toward Bornu, in a healthier and higher region more suitable for Europeans. Northern Nigeria with 256,400 square miles has a large trade to the mart of Kano by caravan from Salaga in the west, Tripoli, Morocco and the Sahara in the north and Lake Chad and Wadai in the east. The imports are principally cottons, hardware and salt. A light railway runs from Zungeru to Bari-Juko, twenty-four miles, and the survey for its extension to Zaria and Kano is finished. Five stern-wheel steamers, three steam launches and a steam pinnace belonging to the government are on the Niger, and the telegraph runs from the Lagos frontier to Jebba and thence to Lokoja, Zungeru, Zaria and other points, a total of 1,701 miles.

Southern Nigeria has an estimated area of 49,700 square miles and population of 3,055,600, with the seat of government at Old Calabar. Forcados and Old Calabar are joined by telegraph with Lagos, Bonny, Brass and other points, a total of 195 miles. Spirits are prohibited in Northern but not in Southern Nigeria. The chief products are rubber, gum, hides, ivory, palm oil and palm kernels. Northern Nigeria is rich in agricultural resources, cotton being largely grown and now manufactured. Here are found the Hausa race, who carry on the internal trade by means of caravans in Central Sudan.

Night′hawk, an American insect-catching bird related to the whip-poor-will, a member of the goatsucker family. It is quiet all day but flies at dusk and is often called the bull-bat. It is common in many parts of the United States from May to October, and may be seen at nightfall, high in the air, sailing back and forth in search of flying insects. It is about the size of the robin, of a dark color mottled with gray, and can always be recognized from its wide wing-spread, making it seem longer than the robin, and its white wing spots, conspicuous in flight, distinguishing it from the whip-poor-will, for which it is often mistaken. It is sometimes called night-jar, and also goes by the name of mosquito-hawk; names more apt than

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nighthawk, for it is far removed from being a hawk save in keenness of vision. As a rule this bird hunts in small companies of his fellows; one never tires of watching it in its hunting. In the evening, high, high overhead the bird sai1s along, from height and ease making suddenest drop down to lower atmosphere, where its wonderful vision has discovered a fly, mosquito, beetle or moth. During the heat of the day it rests, sitting motionless on limb, wall or lichen-covered rock, — any place where it will be inconspicuous. The nest is made in hollow rock or on bare ground, and there are two speckled gray eggs. These eggs are sometimes found on a house-top in the city. Frequently after nesting-season is over, night-hawks gather in towns, hunt the myriad insects about street-lights, resting on roofs by day. They are widely distributed in North America. When they migrate, they travel in large flocks. The sound made by them is another way in which to distinguish them from the whip-poor-will; as they fly their call is a sharp “pee-ent! pee-ent!” and when they make a drop through the air and then turn suddenly upward, there is heard a peculiar “boo-oom, boo-oom” — thought to be caused by the action of the air on the outstretched wings and tail. In localities where they are numerous the evening air resounds with the nighthawk’s boom, which, heard at a distance, betrays the unseen bird. See Chapman: Bird Life.

Night′ingale, a bird famous on account of its brilliant song, which for quality and variety is not exceeded by that of any other bird. The song of the nightingale has been a theme of poets for ages. Homer wrote of the “sweet, tawny nightingale” that “deep in leafy shades complains, trilling her thick-warbled strains.” Milton called the nightingale “most musical, most melancholy bird.” Coleridge wrote:

“ . . . . . the merry nightingale
That crowds, and hurries, and precipitates,
With fast, thick warble his delicious notes,
As if he were fearful an April night
Would be too short for him to utter forth
His love-chaunt, and disburden his full soul
Of all its music.”

This bird belongs to the group of Old World warblers, and is not found in the New World. Its range is central and western Europe; it is abundant in Spain and Portugal, and abounds in portions of the midland, eastern and southern counties of England. Thicket and hedge and wet meadow are its favorite haunt. It is during the nesting season the male pours forth his glorious song, to be heard from the middle of April to perhaps a little later than the middle of June. Both day and night he sings. Apart from the wonderful song, the utterance of the nightingale is not musical; Mitchell, in Cries and Call-Notes of Wild Birds, declares the common alarm cry very like the croak of a frog, and speaks of its call as a “squeak” and of a high “distress-note.” The bird is about the size of the hedge sparrow; graceful of form; in color, reddish-brown above and grayish-white below. Its loosely constructed nest is usually built on the ground, sometimes in low brush. In rare beauty of song, our hermit thrush has been compared to the nightingale. Our cardinal bird (cardinal grosbeak) is sometimes called the Virginia nightingale.

Nightingale, Florence, an English philanthropist, daughter of William Edward Nightingale, was born at Florence, Italy, in May, 1820, and during the course of her study of science, mathematics and classics with her father, showed a great desire to lessen human suffering, so much so that in 1844 she began a tour of Europe, looking into the condition of hospitals, and in 1851 entered upon a course of study as a trained nurse at Kaiserswerth on the Rhine. On Nov. 4, 1854, the year of the outbreak of the Crimean War, she arrived at Scutari with thirty trained nurses and took charge of the military hospitals until the close in July of 1856. She then turned her attention to the improvement of the sanitary condition of the army, and wrote many books and papers on that and kindred subjects, among them Notes on Nursing, Notes on Hospitals, Life or Death in India, etc. She was the founder of St. Thomas’ Home in London for the training of nurses and the recipient of a cross from the late Queen Victoria and a bracelet from the sultan of Turkey. Longfellow praised her in Santa Filomena. See Life by S. A. Tooley. She died Aug. 13, 1910.

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The pupils are usually persons who are prevented from attending day schools by their regular occupations.

Night-schools are of great variety, their nature in any particular locality depending upon local needs. Before the days of compulsory education many persons took advantage of this means of remedying deficiencies in their elementary education. At the present time there is much more demand for evening classes in high school grade of work and for courses in trade and technical schools. Evening schools are of earlier origin and more highly developed in Europe than in America. In many cities good high-school courses are now offered in evening schools. Many of the best trade and technical institutes give evening instruction equal in efficiency to that given in their day classes, as Pratt Institute, New York; Maryland Institute, Baltimore; and Drexel Institute, Philadelphia. Most business and commercial schools, many Y. M. C. A.’s and some law schools give evening courses. Much of the university extension and university settlement work is done in this way.

Night′shade, an order of tropical and subtropical herbs and shrubs and a few trees, having for the most part a heavy, offensive odor. There are over a thousand species, the greatest number being found in Central and South America. The leaves have the property of putting to sleep, but lose this when boiled. The typical nightshade has a slender stem, pointed oval leaves, white clustered flowers and small rounded black berries. The several kinds are known by different names — the woody nightshade as bittersweet, deadly nightshade as belladonna, and enchanter’s nightshade as circæa.

Ni′hilist, now used as designating a Russian revolutionist. It was first so introduced by Turgenieff, who defined a nihilist as one who “bows before no authority of any kind, and accepts on faith no principle, whatever veneration surround it.” The nihilist believes in no institution of government, progress, or art, unless it be by and for the benefit of the masses. The movement with which the nihilist is identified had its origin in 1860, when the proposed freeing of serfs was prevented by the influence of the serf-owners with the czar. From this time the nihilists organized societies to force the adoption of a new constitution, and in their efforts resorted to violence repeatedly, going so far as to kill czar Alexander II on March 13, 1881. For alleged crimes previous to this hundreds were sent to Siberia in exile, while for the murder of Alexander II many were hanged and hundreds exiled. See Russia and the Siberian Exiles by George Kennan.

Nijni-Novgorod. See Novgorod.

Nikko (nēk′ kō), one of the chief religious centers of Japan, is beautifully situated in the Nikko Zan (Mountains of the Sun’s Brightness), about eighty miles northwest of Tokio. A Shinto temple seems to have existed at Nikko from time immemorial, and in 767 its first Buddhist temple was founded; but the main celebrity of the place is due to the sepulchers and sanctuaries of Iyeyasu and Iyemitsu, the first and third shoguns of the Tokugawa dynasty. Iyeyasu was buried here with amazing pomp in 1617. His tomb lies forty steps higher up the hills than the numerous magnificent temples and other structures which cluster around it. Above the tomb, the hill on which it stands is covered to the summit with trees of various tints, while below are a vast number of temples, shrines, pagodas, monuments and religious edifices of all kinds, to which thousands of pilgrims resort every year, and by whose gifts Nikko has been thus beautified, making it one of the most attractive spots in all Japan, in addition to being the great sanctuary of the Shinto cult.

Nile, a great river of Africa, the ancient Nilus, the second longest river in the world and the sacred river of the Egyptians. It has its source at the southern end of Lake Victoria Nyanza, and, pouring over Ripon Falls, runs 300 miles to join Albert Nyanza, 20 miles from which it falls 120 feet into a deep gorge, and flows in a northerly direction into the Mediterranean. At 7½° N. the channel is divided in two, only to join again at 9½°, to be called the White Nile, flowing thus to Khartum, where it is joined by the Blue Nile, 950 miles long. These augmented waters flow for 200 miles before they are joined by the Black Nile. Below Khartum the navigation is impeded and dangerous on account of six rapids. The Nile begins to rise in April and reaches the highest point in September, often causing disastrous floods. The ancients believed that the river rose in Morocco and flowed underground for several days’ journey, rising to the south of Ethiopia, thence passing northward. The Emperor Nero first began the investigations of the source of the river by sending out two expeditions, but they were not completed in their present form until the explorations by Speke in 1858, by Baker and Schweinfurth in 1868–71 and by Stanley in 1875 and 1889. The total length of the Nile from Victoria Nyanza to the Mediterranean is 3,400 miles, although the river actually draws its water as far as 250 miles south of Lake Victoria. See the writings of the explorers named.

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Nil′sson, Christine, a Swedish prima donna and operatic singer, was born near Wexio, Sweden, Aug. 3, 1843. A magistrate was impressed by her singing at a fair in 1857, and sent her to Stockholm and Paris for a musical education. She appeared first in Paris in La Traviata in 1864 and in London in 1867, and was soon ranked among the foremost singers on the modern stage. In 1872 she married M. Rouzaud, and in 1887 the Count di Miranda.

Nîmes (nēm), the capital of Gard, a French department, lies in the valley of the Cevennes. It has narrow, crooked streets, and its principal interest lies in the Roman remains; there being the Corinthian Maison Carrée, now a museum; an amphitheatre seating 20,000; a mausoleum, baths and two gates. The city is the seat of large manufactories of silk, cotton, carpets, shawls, wine, brandy etc. Nimes was settled from Marseilles and became one of the great cities of Gaul. It was in the hands of the Visigoths (465), Franks (507) and Saracens (725); then it belonged to Aragon; but finally it came into the possession of France in 1259 by the treaty of Corbeil. Population 80,605.

Nin′eveh, the famous capital of the Assyrian empire, called Ninâ on the monuments, now a mass of ruins called Kuyúnjik. Though the city appears to have been entirely destroyed in the fall of the empire, the name of Nineveh continued, even in the middle ages, to be applied to a site opposite Mosul, on the east bank of the Tigris, where artificial mounds and traces of an ancient city wall gave evidence of fallen greatness. The most elaborate defenses, such as outworks and moats, can still be traced on the southern half of the east side; for this part of the city was most open to attack. It was not until the excavations of Botta in 1842 and of Layard in 1845, that anything definite was learned of the life and history of Assyria from its monuments and library. Not only have the magnificent remains of Assyrian architecture and sculpture been laid bare, but accompanying cuneiform inscriptions throw much light on the history of the city and its buildings. Nineveh proper was only one of a group of cities and royal residences whose ruins still mark the plain between the Tigris, the Great Záb and the Kházir. Nineveh proper appears to have been the chief seat of empire. But when the book of Jonah speaks of Nineveh as a city of three days’ journey, it is plain that the name is applied to the whole group of cities between the Tigris and the Záb. See works of Layard, Botta, Flandin, Schrader and Keilinsch. See also Assyrian Discoveries by George Smith.

Ning′-Po′ (City of the Hospitable Waves), a treaty port of the province of Che-Kiang in China, lies 16 miles from the mouth of the Ning-Po River; is surrounded by a wall 25 feet in height and 16 in thickness. It is a free port, exporting sedge hats, green tea, mats, cuttlefish, silk goods and raw cotton, and importing opium, cotton and woolen goods, tin and iron, kerosene oil, sugar, tobacco and indigo. Population estimated at 400,000.

Niobe (nī′ ṓ-bē), according to Homer’s story of mythology, was the daughter of Tantalus and wife of Amphion, king of Thebes, to whom she bore six sons and six daughters. She was proud of her children, and despised Latona, who had only two. For this, Latona caused her children to slay all Niobe’s with arrows, and Niobe herself was turned into stone on Mount Sipylus from which tears flowed all summer. A statue of Niobe and her children was discovered in Rome in 1583.

Nip′igon, a lake and also a river and a bay, in northwestern Ontario, Canada, through which river and bay the waters of the lake flow to Lake Superior from the north. The lake lies about 25 miles north of the northernmost part of Lake Superior. It is 70 miles long from north to south and 45 miles wide from east to west. It is surrounded by lofty shores, abrupt and precipitous in many places. Its shores being indented by many bays measure, it is estimated, nearly 600 miles in extent. It lies about 800 feet above the level of Lake Superior. Its waters are fed by many mountain streams, and being very deep and cold it is celebrated for the excellence of its fish. Being thickly studded with islands, it has become a favorite resort for sportsmen and others from the northern United States. It is said to have in January a mean temperature of but seven degrees above zero, or that of Godthaab in Greenland, and in July the mean temperature of San Francisco. By some authorities the name is spelled Nepigon.

Nippur′, a city of Babylonia, situated between the Tigris and the Euphrates, in the neighborhood of 100 miles southeast from Bagdad and about 50 miles from the site of ancient Babylon. The mound which covers the ruins of the ancient city was first made the object of study by Sir Austen Layard in 1851. The expedition sent out by the University of Pennsylvania began work upon this mound in February, 1889. The excavations so carried on revealed the site of a city of great importance, one of the chief commercial and military centers of the ancient east. The University of Pennsylvania possesses a large and important collection of relics brought from this site.

Ni′ter. See Saltpeter.

Ni′tric Acid (HNO₃), is one of the most important acids. It was formerly, and sometimes is still, called aqua fortis. It is prepared by distilling a mixture of saltpeter, usually the cheaper Chile variety (sodium nitrate), with sulphuric acid. The strongest nitric acid is about half again as heavy as

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Ni′trogen is an elementary gas which in the free state forms nearly four fifths by volume of our atmosphere. In combination with other elements, nitrogen is a necessary constituent of all plants and animals, and it forms a very large number of important compounds, both natural and artificial. Its presence in the atmosphere was discovered in 1772 by Rutherford, at that time professor of botany in the University of Edinburgh. It was more particularly investigated soon after by Priestley, Scheele, Cavendish and Lavoisier. It is a colorless, tasteless, odorless gas, and was formerly regarded as permanent and incondensable; but it can be liquefied at a sufficiently low temperature. Nitrogen is slightly lighter than atmospheric air, and is fourteen times as heavy as hydrogen. It is but slightly soluble in water, one hundred volumes of water at ordinary temperature dissolving only one and a half volumes of nitrogen.

While nitrogen is a constituent of all plant and animal organisms and of many important compounds, it is, in a free state, rather inert toward other elements and does not readily enter into direct combination with them. It is not combustible, nor does it act in the atmosphere as a supporter of combustion, as a lighted taper plunged into a jar of nitrogen will at once be extinguished. Nitrogen is not poisonous, since it is breathed freely along with oxygen by all animals; but it cannot support life, and an animal placed in it will die from suffocation for want of the oxygen necessary for breathing. Its function in the atmosphere seems to be mainly that of diluting the oxygen with which it is there associated. Although nitrogen forms about 79.1 per cent. of the total volume, and 77 per cent, of the total weight, of the atmosphere, the free gas cannot be taken up by plants directly, but it is combined with other elements through the agency of certain bacteria that exist in nodules on the [[./Root|roots]] of leguminous plants, that is, those that are related to clover, peas etc. Other plants, particularly grasses and grains which require much nitrogen, are dependent upon the combined nitrogen of the soil; hence nitrogenous fertilizers, such as dried blood, ammonium salts and nitrates, as well as ordinary manures, are important in agriculture for use on soils containing insufficient nitrogen. Two of the important compounds of nitrogen are nitric acid and ammonia. This element also is an essential constituent of the proteids or albuminoids, which make an important part of our food, as well as of the alkaloids, most of the dyes and a host of other natural and artificial compounds.

H. L. Wells.

Nitrogen-Gathering Crops all belong to the family of leguminous plants or Leguminoseæ, having irregular, conspicuous flowers or clusters and seeds in pods. The bean and pea are good examples. The clovers do not seem at first sight to answer this description. All have abundant foliage, root deeply, and are remarkable for their ability to take pure nitrogen from the soil and store it up in form available as plant and animal food. This is done by means of germ-like organisms which grow inside of tiny lumps on the roots. These nodules can be seen by washing the earth from the roots of any of these plants, and range in size from that of a pin-head to that of a small pea. These nodules will not appear on clover roots if none of the germs exist in the soil. Such a soil can now be inoculated with the germs by applying a solution containing them. The germs are put up in dry form like yeast-cakes and can be obtained from the Department of Agriculture, and be dissolved to make the solution. The nitrifying action goes on best in well-ventilated soils. In poorly drained soils just the opposite process, denitrification, is apt to occur, reducing plant food to unavailable simple nitrogen. The subject of nitrifying bacteria is very complex, as they possibly also exert a fermenting influence on the minerals of the soil. Experiments have shown that an acre of cowpeas at the Louisiana Experiment Station produced 65 pounds of nitrogen, and an acre of crimson clover at Cornell University produced 156 pounds, 30 of which were in the roots. Other clovers produce a greater proportion in the roots, as the mammoth clover, with 78 pounds in the roots out of a total of 146 pounds. It grows best in wet soils that usually are deficient in nitrogen, and so leaves much in the soil when the tops are cut off. Red clover, the usual variety grown on loams and heavier clays, contained

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in the experiment, 40 pounds in the roots out of a total of 103 pounds. A low estimate of the market value of nitrogen is between 15 and 20 cents a pound. See Moore’s Soil Inoculation with Legumes and Wood’s Inoculation of Soil with Nitrogen-Fixing Bacteria, both bulletins of the U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

Ni′troglyc′erin, a powerful explosive, is formed by dissolving glycerin in equal parts of nitric and sulphuric acids and pouring into water. The process was discovered in 1846 by an Italian chemist named Sobrero, but it was not used for blasting purposes until Nobel, a Swedish engineer, used it in 1861. The danger of explosion was so great in handling it that its mixtures with powdered substances, especially dynamite, are now chiefly used. If lighted in the open air, it will burn usually slowly without an explosion, but if given a hard blow or brought into contact with a red-hot iron it will explode. It begins to decompose at 150° to 180° F., and explodes at 450°, also if allowed to become solid at from 40° to 45° F.; a breaking of the crystals in this form may cause an explosion. It has thirteen times the power of the same bulk of gunpowder and eight times the power of the same weight. It is also used in solution for treating some diseases of the heart and stomach.

No′bel Fund, The, is a fund of $9,200,000 which was founded by Alfred Bernard Nobel, the famous Swedish inventor, for the purpose of providing five annual prizes. Nobel took out the first patent for the manufacture of nitroglycerine in 1863, and in 1867 he invented one of the most useful of explosives, dynamite. The objects for which his prizes are given are these: the most important discovery in physics, the most important discovery in chemistry, the most important discovery in medical science, the work of best literary genius and the best contribution to universal peace. The first awards were made in 1901. The peace-prize was awarded in 1907 to President Roosevelt of the United States of America.

Node, the distinct joint formed by stems from which the leaves and branches arise. The portions of the stem between the nodes are known as internodes.

Nogi, General Ki-Teu, a Japanese soldier or samurai, born in Choshu in 1851. He served in the Satsuma Rebellion and, later, was made governor-general of Formosa. He received the rank of general on June 6th, 1904; commanded the third army in Manchuria in the Russo-Japanese war, rendering valuable service in the Battle of Mukden; and led the forces that captured Port Arthur. He bore the reputation of being a model soldier according to the most rigorous and ancient standards. This is considered the more remarkable, as Choshu men generally are credited not so much with courage as sagacity. Following an ancient Japanese custom, General Nogi and his wife committed suicide at their home, Sept. 13, 1912, just as the body of their late emperor, Mutsuhito (q. v.), was being taken from Tokio for burial.

Nome, the chief town of Alaska, is a large and flourishing port on Bering Sea, at the mouth of Snake River. The richest known gold-fields in Alaska lie within the Cape Nome district near Nome. The city sprang up like a mushroom; for in 1899 there were as yet no wooden dwellings; while in 1907 a water supply, sewage, an electric lighting plant, a railroad and the telephone indicated that the stage of mining camp had gone forever. Population about 2,600.

Nor′dau, Max Simon, a Hungarian physician and author, the most ardent of Zionists, was born at Budapest, July 29, 1849, of Jewish ancestry. He came into public notice by his work entitled Degeneration, published in 1895, in which he argued powerfully in defense of the proposition that the occidental nations are degenerating, morally, mentally and physically. He held that in politics, society and faith the age is thoroughly decadent. The work evoked many replies, which kept it continually before the public. He had been writing for almost twenty years before, but only a few of his volumes had been translated into English. The best known of his works are Paradoxes and The Malady of the Century. Since the publication of Degeneration, he has issued The Comedy of Sentiment, The Right to Love, The Drones must Die and others of limited circulation.

Nordenskjöld (nô′ rden-shẽl′), Nils Adolf Erik, Baron, an arctic explorer, was born at Helsingfors, Finland, Nov. 18, 1832. He was naturalized in Sweden in 1857, and in 1858 was made head of the mineralogical department of the royal museum at Stockholm. He mapped the south of Spitzbergen, and after two trips to the mouth of the Yenesei he completed the navigation of the northeast passage from the Atlantic to the Pacific, from June, 1878, to September, 1879, in the Vega. On the last of his two voyages to Greenland, in 1883, he traveled 140 miles from the east coast. He was made a baron in 1880, and has written Voyage of the Vega round Asia and Europe, Scientific Results of the Vega Expedition, and

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Nord′hoff, Charles, an American author, was born at Erwitte, Prussia, Aug. 31, 1830. He came to the United States with his parents when a child of five years, and was educated at Cincinnati. He entered the United States navy in 1844, and during a service of three years made a voyage around the world. He became a journalist, first at Philadelphia and later at Indianapolis. From 1861 to 1871 he was editorial writer for the New York Evening Post. The next two years he spent in travel through California and the Hawaiian Islands. He then became Washington correspondent for the New York Herald. His principal works are A Man-of-War Life, The Merchant Vessel, Whaling and Fishing, Stories of an Island World, Cape Cod and All Along Shore, California, Politics for Young Americans and The Communistic Societies of the United States.

Nor′dica, Lillian, the stage name of Mrs. Zoltan F. Döme, an American prima donna, who was born at Farmington, Me., in 1859. Her musical education was pursued at the New England Conservatory, Boston, and her later studies at Milan, Italy. She made her début as an opera singer at Brescia, Italy, in La Traviata. In 1887 she appeared in London with marked success, following up her triumphs in Paris by others at St. Petersburg and various European capitals. Mme. Nordica has sung leading parts in forty operas and in all standard oratorios. She was married first to F. A. Gower; second (1896) to Herr Döme, whom she divorced in 1904.

Nor′folk, Va., a city and port, stands on the right bank of the Elizabeth River, about eight miles from Hampton Roads. It is built irregularly on low ground, but has a large, deep harbor, defended by Fort Calhoun and Fortress Monroe. The city contains a city hall, mechanics’ and masons’ hall, custom house, military academy and seminary; it has an excellent system of public schools and owns eighteen buildings. Norfolk ships cotton, oysters and early fruits, is the largest peanut market in the world, and is the fourth cotton port of the U. S. It is served by eleven railroads, which find their deep-water terminus here. The place was burned by the British in 1776, and was the scene of the battle between the Monitor and Merrimac. Population 67,452.

Nor′mal Schools. From time to time throughout the history of education, the need of special training for teachers has been emphasized. This training aimed, however, until comparatively modern times, at better mastery of subjects to be taught, and was not obtained in schools especially devoted to the science and art of teaching. The Jesuits were famous for the care with which their teachers were selected, for the thoroughness of their training in subject matter and for their system of apprenticeship in teaching. Mulcaster (1548–1611), an English schoolmaster, urged that the universities provide professional courses for teachers. In 1685 La Salle, the founder of the Institute of the Brethren of the Christian Schools, established at Rheims an institution for the training of elementary teachers, very likely the first of the kind. Special training of teachers was begun at Halle by the educational reformer, Francke, in 1697. His plans were further developed by his pupil, Hecter, and fostered by Frederick the Great of Prussia. The present normal school system of Prussia was established in 1819. Elementary teachers in Prussia are to-day nearly all graduates of these normal schools. In France the National Normal School was founded in 1795. Normal schools became general after 1832, and to-day about two thirds of the elementary teachers of France have graduated from them. In both Prussia and France students are supported while in attendance upon normal schools. After graduation they are required to teach. Both countries maintain two grades of schools for teachers. The lower one gives to graduates of the elementary schools a three years’ course that prepares them for elementary teaching. Upon graduation they are appointed, at first on probation, when, if successful, they receive permanent certificates. In Germany most of the secondary teachers are trained in the teachers’ seminaries, which are connected with gymnasiums or universities and as a rule give a course of one year’s teaching and one year of practice. France possesses two higher normal schools, giving courses of two and three years respectively, which prepare teachers for the primary normal and the superior normal schools. The normal schools in Great Britain sprang out of an effort to improve the teaching done in the schools of the great charitable public school societies. In 1839 money was granted by the government to be used by them in establishing training colleges. From these are derived a large part of the teachers in the public elementary schools of England to-day. They still remain, as originally, under denominational control. In the United States the first public normal school was established at Lexington, Massachusetts, in 1839. It was the result of agitation in behalf of better training for teachers begun

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by James G. Carter in 1820 and continued by Charles Brooks and especially by Horace Mann. To-day every state but Delaware contains one or more normal schools. In 1905 there were in the United States 179 public and 89 private normal schools. The majority of these admit students who have graduated from the elementary schools, giving them a four years’ course in preparation for elementary teaching. A great many, however, admit only those who have completed a high school course or its equivalent, and offer to these a course of two years. In general it may be said that the drift is toward the latter type of school. The normal school is thus enabled largely to withdraw its attention from purely academic subjects and to devote it to professional ones. It is necessary, of course, to review the subjects in the elementary curriculum. But this review can be obtained in connection with the study of methods of teaching them or from actual practice in teaching them, in practice schools. The tendency toward making the normal school a purely professional school has been going on ever since its establishment. At first it was for the sake of securing better informed rather than better trained teachers, and this may be said of the normal schools in Europe as well as of those in the United States. Eventually, as the general system of schools is rendered more efficient, it becomes possible to hand over to this the responsibility for such general information as the teacher needs, reserving for the normal school such study as is specially aimed toward fitting for teaching. It is to be noted that practice teaching under a critic teacher is probably the most valuable part of such work, and most normal schools in the United States as well as in Europe control elementary schools in which this teaching is done. In this respect the normal schools possess an advantage over the departments of education that have come to exist quite generally in the American colleges and universities, very few of which have any facilities for practice teaching. It is true that college graduates who teach go especially into secondary and higher schools, needing in consequence much more knowledge of subject matter than is required of elementary teachers. But although familiarity with his subject is the prime essential for any teacher, knowledge of how to teach is scarcely less important, and this holds of the teacher in high schools and colleges as well as of those in the primary schools. The failure to realize this is doubtless the cause of the increase of bad teaching as we go from the primary school to the university. The lack of opportunities for professional training for secondary and college teachers has caused some normal schools intended originally for the training of elementary teachers to undertake the preparation of secondary ones as well. It is probable that such work can not be done in teachers’ colleges connected with universities or in universities the departments of education of which possess practice schools. The committee on normal schools of the National Educational Association recommends the following program for a four years’ course: arithmetic, elementary algebra, plane geometry, English grammar, English, elements of rhetoric, zoology, botany, physiography, physics, chemistry, nature-study, penmanship, drawing, manual training (either domestic science or sloyd or both), reading, music, fine arts, sociology, history, civics, economics, folk-lore, general physical education, gymnastics, games, school sanitation, psychology, pedagogy, observation and teaching in the training-school. The last four should be taken for a year each, and together they should amount to one fourth of the entire course. Many of the other subjects would disappear in case the school admits only high-school graduates. Compare Modern Education, Elementary Schools and Secondary Schools.

Nor′man, Henry, an English journalist, was born at Leicester, England, Sept. 19, 1858. He studied, however, in this country, graduating from Harvard College in 1881 and passing the next two years at Leipsic, Germany. He then accepted a position on the Pall Mall Gazette, London, and later became associate-editor of the Daily Chronicle. He has published works upon China, Corea, Japan, Siberia and The Balkans. He has in recent years published The Real Japan, The Peoples and Politics of the Far East, The Near East, All the Russias and Motors and Men.

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to sit by the well of Urd, under the world tree in Asgard, and determine the fate of gods and men. There also were lesser norns, all working on the destinies of man.

Nor′ristown, Pa., a borough, the county-seat of Montgomery County, stands on the left bank of the Schuylkill and is a suburb of Philadelphia. It contains a marble courthouse, a state insane asylum, cotton mills, woolen factories, rolling mills, foundries, flour mills and glass and tack factories. Population 27,875.

North A′dams, a manufacturing town of Massachusetts, is situated on Hoosac River, at the junction of the north and south branch, near the west end of Hoosac Tunnel, 143 miles from Boston. It has large cotton and woolen mills, shoe and print factories, machine shops, leather manufactories and foundries. Here are a State Normal School, public and parish schools, high schools and the North Adams Library. Population 22,019.

North America. See America.

North Bay, Ont., Can., an important railway town and judicial center of Nipissing District. It is a divisional point of the Canadian Pacific Railway; the junction also of Temiskaming Railway and the northern division of the Grand Trunk. It is on Lake Nipissing. Population 5,000. A smelter for the reduction of ores is located at Trout Lake, three miles distant.

North Cape, the extreme north of Europe, is not on the continent, but is a promontory on the island of Mageröe. The continental extremity is Cape Nordkyn, six miles south and 45 east of North Cape.

North Car′olina, one of the original 13 states of the United States, lies on the Atlantic seaboard, directly below Virginia, and has an area of 52,250 square miles, that is, 7,000 square miles larger than Pennsylvania.

Drainage and Surface. The eastern part of the state is low and often marshy, rising gradually to the North Carolina mountains in the west, with Mount Mitchell (6,688 feet) for their highest point. The principal ranges traversing the state are the Blue Ridge, the Great Smoky Range, the Black and the Balsam Mountains. Albemarle and Pamlico are the two important sounds, and of the lakes Mattamuskeet is the largest, having an area of 100 square miles. Drainage follows the general slope of the land toward the southeast, and the principal rivers are the Catawba, Yadkin, Roanoke, Neuse, Tar and Chowan.

Natural Resources. North Carolina is rich in minerals; gold, silver, lead, zinc, copper, plumbago, corundum and mica are widely distributed. Most important, however, are the immense deposits of iron and coal. Phosphate rock is found in great abundance, white and gray granite and sandstone quarries are quite numerous, while marble and tin are also found. From the extensive forests of long-leaved pine, large quantities of tar, resin and turpentine are shipped every year. Other varieties of trees are walnut, holly, birch, ash, cedar, maple, hickory, magnolia and many others. The river and coast fisheries represent an annual source of income to several thousand people. The government hatchery for shad and herring is at Edenton, and for rock bass and salmon at Weldon. The oyster and shell fish industry is of great value, oysters of a fine quality and much prized coming from New River.

Agriculture. Agriculture also is an important interest, large crops of corn, cottons wheat, rice, oats, hay, flax, buckwheat, tobacco and sweet potatoes being produced. In the production of tobacco North Carolina is second only to Kentucky. Truck-farming has become quite important of recent years, as are also the cultivation of the grape and the raising of stock.

Industries. While the rivers of North Carolina are non-navigable because of their fall at the old shore-line of the ocean, they have been turned into streams of vast power through the same agency. The state has water-power unsurpassed and scarcely equalled in any other. It leads the southern states in the manufacture of cotton goods and extensively manufactures tobacco, cigars and lumber products. Among her other industries are flour and grist milling, the tanning and curing of leather, the making of machinery, liquors, utensils and fertilizers.

Education. A public school fund was provided in North Carolina in 1825, and in 1840 her public-school system was established. The state appropriations are aided by local taxation in the larger towns. There is an equal distribution of educational funds between the races, and an annual provision is made for normal institutes for both colored and white teachers. The higher state educational institutions are the state university established at Chapel Hill in 1789, the state agricultural and mechanical college at Raleigh, and a state college for women at Greensboro. There are many sectarian colleges, several women’s colleges and three colleges for colored people. The state library is at Raleigh, the university and the various colleges have their libraries, public libraries are in many cities, and there is a state appropriation for libraries in the rural districts.

History. Sir Walter Raleigh first placed colonies in the state in 1585–86–87, but none became permanent. In 1629 it was given to Sir Robert Heath by Charles I, and in 1653 some Virginia colonists settled on the banks of the Roanoke and Chowan Rivers. Later large numbers of emigrants from Scotland and the north of Ireland and a company of Moravians settled in the colony. It

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became a royal province in 1729, and so remained until May 20, 1775, when it declared its independence, the Mecklenberg Declaration of Independence (q. v.) being passed in convention at Charlotte on the date named. It was the 12th state to ratify the constitution. It was the last of the 11 states to secede from the Union in 1861, but earnestly supported the Confederacy, furnishing soldiers to the Confederate army in excess of the voting population of the state. North Carolina has advanced greatly in recent years, in trade and manufacturing industries. Population 2,206,287.

North Carolina, University of, was the second state-university founded in America. Its charter was granted in 17893 it began teaching in 1795, and work went on uninterruptedly till 1868. In 1875 work was renewed, the old college course of Greek, Latin and mathematics replaced by modern courses, and (in 1877) the first summer normal school of the south started. The university has always played a considerable part in southern education. Its departments include the college, the graduate-schools, the law-school, the medical school, the school of pharmacy and the school of mines. Its productive funds are $200,000, its receipts from benefactions in 1906 were $30,000 and its income was $110,000. Its faculty numbered 80, the students 775 and the library 50,000 volumes.

North'cote, Baron, Hon. Henry Stafford, G. C. M. G., G. C. I. E., C. B., governor-general and commander-in-chief of the Commonwealth of Australia, is the younger son of the late Sir Stafford Northcote and was born in 1846. He early took to diplomatic work, as private secretary to Lord Salisbury on his mission to Constantinople. Later he became financial secretary to the English war office, served a term as governor of Bombay, and in 1903 succeeded Baron Tennyson in the Australian governorship. He is a man of character and statesmanlike views.

North Dako'ta. A northwestern state of the Union, originally part of the Louisiana purchase and admitted in 1889. It is bounded on the north by Manitoba and Saskatchewan; on the south by South Dakota; on the east by the Red River of the North, which in part separates it from Minnesota and by Minnesota; and on the west by Montana. Its area is 70,795 square miles, its length being 210 and its breadth 360 miles. Its chief river is the Missouri, which courses from the northwestern extremity of the state to its border in the center, and is fed by a number of streams, chiefly falling into it from the west. The population by census of 1910 was 577,056; capital, Bismarck (5,443). The other chief towns are Fargo (14,331), Grand Forks (12,478), Jamestown (4,358), Valley City, Wahpeton and Grafton.

Surface and Climate. North Dakota in considerable part has a fertile belt of producing land, especially in the northeast of the Red River tract, where the soil is a rich, black loam, with a deep alluvial deposit, once covered by ancient Lake Agassiz. In the north-central part are Turtle Mountains, which extend southward from Manitoba over a considerable area of the state; portions of this region are covered with timber, while southeast of the mountains is Devil’s Lake, whose area of salt water, without outlet, is about 40 miles in length and from 6 to 8 in average breadth. Elsewhere the characteristics are those of the treeless prairie with various grasses and forage plants, and underlying this in the northwestern region are tracts of lignite, clay, lime, salt, building-stone and occasional traces of iron. The climate is a dry and bracing one, with temperature varying between 20° to 40° below zero in the winter months and 110° to 114° in summer. For the most part the rainfall is sufficient for farming, though light in the west and northeast.

Natural Resources. In 1910 the leading crops of the state were as follows: wheat, 36,105,000 bushels; oats, 11,396,000 bushels; flaxseed, 5,778,000 bushels; hay and forage, over 3,000,000 tons; barley, 5,428,000 bushels; corn, 2,996,000 bushels. Wheat is by far the most important crop, representing in both acreage and value nearly two-thirds of all cereals combined. Most of the wheat crop is common spring wheat, but considerable durum or macaroni and a little winter wheat is also raised. With the exception of sheep and lambs, which decreased greatly in value, all live stock increased during the last decade, but in widely different degrees. In 1910 North Dakota had 650,599 horses, 484,589 neat cattle, 259,173 dairy cows, 293,371 sheep and 331,603 swine and 7,695 mules. Little fruit is raised, and little development of mineral ore, though lignite coal is said to be plentiful in the western parts.

Manufactures. The industries are of minor importance, and what there are represent, in the main, flour and grist mill products, with the kindred industries of butter, cheese and condensed milk. The value of the total manufacturers in 1909 was but $19,138,000. Printing and publishing are growing trades and in 1909 yielded a gross value of $1,910,000. Fargo is the chief center of manufacturing.

Commerce and Finance. The export trade of the two Dakotas in 1905–06, from returns of the Pembina customs, reached a value of $15,000,000, while the imports were but $1,500,000. The railway mileage in North Dakota in 1910 was 4,201 miles, representing the Northern Pacific, Great Northern and Minneapolis, St. Paul and Sault Ste. Marie roads. The total assessed valuation of the state, in 1911, amounted to $278,594,193, the realty property assessment amounting

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to $184,589,989. In 1910–11 there were 148 national and 555 state banks. The former had an aggregate capital of close upon $5,285,000, and over $24,000,000 of individual deposits, the state institutions a combined capital of over $7,000,000, with over $30,000,000 in deposit.

Education. In 1910 the school expenditure was close upon $5,000,000, derived from local taxes, the permanent school-fund and the sale or rental of school-lands. In 1909–10 the number of enrolled pupils was 139,802, while the average daily attendance was but 90,149; the number of teachers was 7,387, the average monthly salary of which was for men $62.78 and for women $50.49. In 1910 there were 137 high schools, with a total attendance of 5,473. There are a state agricultural college at Fargo and normal schools at Mayville and Valley City. Higher education is represented by the University of North Dakota, near Grand Forks, with 51 instructors and 807 students; Fargo College (Congregational), with 19 instructors and 244 students; and by Red River Valley University (Methodist Episcopal), at Wahpeton.

History. The Dakotas were in the Louisiana purchase of 1803, and from that era to 1812 formed a part of Louisiana Territory, subsequently renamed Missouri Territory. In 1810 French Canadians from the Canadian Red River settlement built a fort at Pembina, which Lord Leekirk, the Canadian governor, claimed mistakenly as a British stronghold. Early in the century the region was explored from Mandan by the Lewis and Clark expedition, and in 1839 a considerable part of the country was explored by Frémont. In 1849 North Dakota east of the Missouri became part of Minnesota for a time, and the area west of the river was made a part of Nebraska Territory. In 1851 to the Federal government was ceded part of the lands held by the Sioux Indians, and these lands were thrown open for settlement. In 1861 Dakota Territory was created, part of Montana and part of Wyoming being included in it; while two years later, on the creation of Idaho Territory, the Dakotas assumed almost their present area, and in 1889 they were separated, forming North Dakota and South Dakota. After their erection into separate statehood, each was given a constitution, a convention which met at Bismarck in 1889 agreed upon a constitution, and in November the state was formally admitted into the Union.

North Dakota, University of, was established in 1883. The federal government gave it land which probably will eventually yield $2,000,000 as endowment. The state makes annual appropriations for it. Its total income for 1911–12 was $366,400, including all receipts from benefactions and productive funds. The faculty numbered 91, the students 995 and the library 30,000 volumes. The departments comprise the colleges of liberal arts, of mechanical and electrical engineering and of mining engineering, the normal college and the schools of commerce and pharmacy.

North, Frederick, eighth Lord North and second earl of Guilford, an English statesman, was born on April 13, 1732, and educated at Oxford. He entered the house of commons at the age of 22, and was made lord of the treasury in 1759. In 1767 he was appointed chancellor of the exchequer and leader of the house of commons, being there opposed to Fox and Burke. In 1770 he became prime minister, and his course, to a large extent, caused England to lose America. He resigned in 1782, and became blind five years before his death, which occurred on Aug. 5, 1792.

Northampton, the capital of Northamptonshire, England, is a municipal county and parliamentary borough, and lies on rising ground on the left bank of the river New. It is the center of the boot and shoe industry of England, and has extensive breweries. The city was burned by the Danes in 1010, rebuilt by Simon de St. Liz in 1075, besieged by the barons against King John in 1215, and was the scene of the treaty recognizing the independence of Scotland in 1318. Population about 75,000.

Northampton, Mass., the county-seat of Hampshire County, is situated near the left bank of the Connecticut River, 103 miles from Boston. It manufactures paper, silk, cotton and woolen goods, sewing machines, baskets, cutlery, brushes and jet ornaments. In the city are the state insane asylum, Clark institute for deaf-mutes, public library and Smith College for women. Population 19,431.

Northcliffe, Lord. See Harmsworth, Alfred.

North′men or Norse′men was a name applied in the middle ages to the seafarers who came from Denmark, Norway and Sweden, and then to those of Norway only. Their passion was sailing and war, and to satisfy it they sailed in all directions to discover and plunder. In plain words, they were pirates, who, during the summer months, visited other lands and preyed upon them, or lay in wait in river mouths or behind islands for vessels to attack and pillage. Their age may be divided into two periods, the first lasting to the middle of the 9th century, devoted to murder and plunder, and from then to the 13th century, given to permanent conquest in Ireland, South Italy, England and France. The first attack was made upon Wessex, in England, in 787, and reached France about the end of the century, and up to 850 they committed most terrible depredations. In 859 and 860 a large fleet entered the Mediterranean and ravaged Spain, Mauritania and Majorca, spending the winter at the mouth of the Rhône, to begin the attack on Italy in the spring. Thus they subsisted on the entire seaboard of Europe

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until Charles the Simple concluded a peace, by which they were allowed to settle in France, and gave them the territory between the Channel, the Seine and the Ept, on the condition that they fought for him and became Christians. The name of Normandy was given to this district, and the Northmen living in it were called Normans. They ruled here from the 10th to the 13th century, when it was taken from them by the king of France, the most illustrious of their dukes being William who became king of England in 1066, with the title of William the Conqueror. The Normans adopted the language and manners of the French, and changed their heathen rites for the Christian religion. The Norsemen, early in the 9th century, had opened the route to the White Sea by rounding North Cape, and before 1222 had many times sailed up the northern Dwina.

Nor′throp, Cyrus, an American educator who from 1884 has been president of the University of Minnesota, was born in 1834 at Ridgefield, Conn. He passed through Yale College and Yale Law School, became a lawyer, and successively was clerk to the Connecticut House of Representatives and to the Senate. During 1862–3 he was chief editor of the New Haven Daily Palladium. He in 1863 became professor of English literature and rhetoric at Yale, until 1884.

North Sea (moved)

North Star, The, is the nearest conspicuous star to the north pole. All stars describe circles, those nearest to the celestial equator the largest circles and those farthest from the celestial equator or nearest to the poles the smallest circles. The North Star being nearest to the north pole describes only a very small circle, and consequently to people living north of the 40° north latitude it never sets. Polaris, the star Alpha of the constellation Ursa Minor, is at present the North Star, and many centuries must pass before the north pole will be defined by any other star. Two stars in the constellation Ursa Major, commonly called the Big Dipper, always point in the direction of the Worth Star and enable it to be readily found. These stars are commonly called the pointers. They form the side of the bowl of the dipper opposite the handle.

North Ton′awan′da, N. Y., a city in Niagara County at the confluence of Niagara River and Tonawanda Creek; on the Erie Canal and the Lehigh Valley, Erie and New York Central railroads. Only 10 miles from Buffalo, several other railroads using leased tracks, and electric lines connect it with that city, Niagara Falls and other places. It has large manufacturing and commercial interests. Pig-iron, steam-pipes, merry-go-rounds, steam-pumps, bolts, nuts and a large variety of lumber products are manufactured here. The government is vested in a mayor, who holds office for two years, and a council consisting of two members from each ward and three at large. The city owns and operates its own water-works. Aided by the development of power at Niagara Falls, it has had a very rapid growth. Population 11,955.

Northwest Territories of Canada, The. (moved)

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Norwich
Nose
Nottingham
Nova Scotia and leased on a royalty system to mining companies. The province gets half its revenue in this way. There is no direct taxation for provincial purposes. It keeps up roads, bridges, etc., and thus lightens municipal taxation. The value of the coal-production exceeds $50,000,000. The Cape Breton mines are the largest producers, and have built up the port of Sydney, the population of which has quadrupled in ten years (now 10,000).

Education. Nova Scotia is especially proud of her free, public-school system, which is open to the children of all the people. In each of the 18 counties a high school or academy carries on the work of the public school to a higher plane, and universities carry the work still further and crown the educational structure. There also is a provincial normal school at Truro. Dalhousie College and the University (undenominational) are at Halifax. The University of King’s College at Windsor is Anglican, and that of Acadia College at Wolfville is Baptist. St. Francis Xavier College at Antigonish and St. Anne’s College at Digby are Roman Catholic. There are a Presbyterian Theological College at Halifax, a school for the blind and one for the deaf and dumb.

Halifax port is open all the year round and is the terminus of the Intercolonial Railway.

No′va Zem′bla, an archipelago and two islands in the Arctic Ocean, attached to the Archangel government of northern Russia, lying between Kara and Barents Seas. It is about 600 miles long and 80 wide, almost cut into two narrow strips by the sea-passage of Matochkin Shar. Nothing is known of the interior, and it is only visited by Russians and Norwegians to capture sea-fowl, seal, whale, walrus and dolphin. The country was known to the Novgorod hunters in the 11th century, and was rediscovered by Sir Hugh Willoughby in 1553, and has since that time afforded much search and interest. Much has of late been learned of the country, which may be said to be uninhabited since 1868, save for a small colony of Russian and Samoyedes, who subsist by hunting and fishing. The Russian name for the archipelago is Novaya Zemlya.

Novel, The. The novel is the most flexible and inclusive of modern literary forms. It may be said to have begun in Spain with Cervantes’ Don Quixote (1604), which replaced the unreal and misleading romances of chivalry with a fidelity to history, scenery, life and manners and with a hurmor, pathos and wisdom which make it one of the great books of the world. Le Sage inaugurated the same tradition in France, directing it in his Gil Blas (1715), especially to circumstances and manners.

The English novel began with Richardson’s Pamela (1740), a minute analysis of middle-class circumstances; with Fielding’s Tom Jones (1749), a sympathetic and candid history of the experiences of an ordinary man; with Sterne’s brilliant, witty and sentimental Tristram Shandy (1760); and with Smollett’s lively and humorous adventures of Humphrey Clinker (1771). In the early 19th century Jane Austen perfected Richardson’s fidelity to the truth of daily life; and Scott inaugurated the counter-tendency of the historical romance. In this he was followed by Dumas and Hugo in France, where Balzac and others followed Smollett. Tolstoy in Russia and contemporary Spanish and Italian novelists have developed the method of Richardson. In the later 19th century in England Dickens revived the manner of Smollett, treating peculiarities and extravagances with extraordinary liveliness and humor and with a humanitarian intension to show the interest and worth of the common man. Thackeray followed Fielding in fidelity and sincerity, adding the element of benevolent social satire. George Eliot added a new depth of emotion to the observation and sympathy of Richardson.

In the United States Cooper, under the influence of Scott, recorded the life of the Indian and the frontiersman, and in The Pilot inaugurated the sea-novel; while Hawthorne in three great romances pictured the inner life of the Puritan past in New England. Present tendencies are well-illustrated by the elaboration of national and social traits by Henry James and the study of sectional and economic differences by Mr. Howells. James aims to produce an illusion of reality by the artistic presentation of personal impressions of “the human spectacle.” Howells seeks to present the actual and the commonplace as a source of social knowledge and moral obligation. Many contemporary novels follow the latter “realistic” theory; being devoted to business, labor and social conditions, problems and remedies. Perhaps the larger number follow the theory and practice of Marion Crawford, who considers the novel an intellectual, artistic luxury; its prime object being to provide interesting or amusing relaxation and recreation; although incidentally it may cultivate right feeling or exhibit characters and actions worthy to be desired or imitated.

The short-story, as it prevails to-day, is a development of the 19th century. Brief tales, of course, have existed from the earlier times. But it remained for Poe to show that a story short enough to be read at a sitting would be more successful if it had the completeness of impression resulting from unity of theme, harmony of parts, selection of detail and compression in expression. This strict conception of the form developed in France at almost the same time. Robert Louis Stevenson made it popular in England considerably later. Since Irving, Poe and Hawthorne the short-story has

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ished in the United States as nowhere else, partly because of the prevalence of magazines as suitable media for publication and partly because of the unequalled opportunity for studies of sectional and local manners to which the form especially lends itself. In this way it has employed literary material too slight for extended treatment, and has become a pervasive and powerful influence toward a national breadth of knowledge and sympathy.

From this rapid survey it will be seen that the structure of prose fiction may be as varied as its content and that its content is limited only by the author’s knowledge and imagination. Plots have often been complete, unified, varied and probable; but some, if not all, of these desirable characteristics have often been lacking. The action must be consistent in itself and with the characters; but it may be simple or complex, logical or surprising, slow or rapid. There usually is some sort of complication and unravelling; but the problem may be internal or external, of religion, patriotism, society, love, grief, ambition, art or what not. The good or the evil triumph or suffer, and the narrative requires or is independent of description, according to the author’s view of life and of his art. The movement may be like that of the epic, the lyric or the drama; or like that of the essay, of travel-literature, of history, biography or autobiography; and it usually combines some characteristics from each of these. The characters may be many or few, independent or related, simple or developed, lively or profound, receptive or influential. They may be based upon the author’s observation or evolved from his own nature. They may be reproductions of actual persons, embodiments of types or pure creations. They may represent their author’s interests, his sympathies, his solution of life. They may be directly described or analysed, or they may be portrayed indirectly through an account of their appearance, words and deeds or through those of related characters. The setting and the accessories may be historical or contemporary; political, social or personal; intimately or slightly connected with the characters and action; occupying little or much attention. Humor, pathos and satire may be inherent or incidental. Literary structure and style may be used as a transparent vehicle for the story, or they may in themselves be a source of pleasure or discomfort. No novel is great in all of these aspects, and these by no means exhaust the field. But greatness consists in an approach toward the ideal in all; and one could scarcely find a better method of studying any particular piece of fiction than by inquiring how it measures up to such a list of possibilities.

Whether one prefers fiction which provides moral stimulus, intellectual culture, increase of knowledge and sympathy or merely the pleasure of forgetfulness depends upon each reader’s mental habit and moral tone. Some fiction undoubtedly does harm by plausibly presenting unveracious views of life and its laws. But the appreciative reading of any of the notable fiction which has been here mentioned will open such a storehouse of profitable pleasure, that no thoughtful reader can ever again find satisfaction in anything less excellent. For, in the words of the Dean of Westminster Abbey at the funeral of Charles Dickens, when properly used, “the work of the successful novelist, if pure in style, elevating in thought, and true in sentiment, is the best of blessings.”

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Nucleus (nū′ klḗ-ŭs), (in plants), a special protoplasmic body always found in cells. So far as known, every cell must contain nucleus and cytoplasm. In the process of ordinary cell division the initial steps are taken by the nucleus. Ordinarily, the nucleus is a spherical body and is usually centrally placed. It is difficult to see under ordinary circumstances without the use of special stains which color it. See Cell.

Nu′ma Pompil′ius, the second Roman king, (who ruled 715–672 B. C.), successor to Romulus, was a native of Cures, in the Sabine country, and esteemed for his piety and wisdom. He was elected king by the Roman people and by the aid of supposed interviews with the nymph Egeria in the groves near the city began to draw up forms of religious institutions for the people, and was thus, according to story, the author of the Roman ceremonial. He reigned during 39 years of peace and happiness.

Numid′ia, the name given by the Romans to that part of Africa which is now Algeria, and reaching south to the Atlas Mountains. The inhabitants were of the race from which the Berbers are descended; were warlike, faithless, dishonest, yet excellent horsemen. In the war between the Carthaginians, Massinissa, the chief of the powerful eastern tribe, joined the Romans and later ruled the entire country. Of his successors Jugurtha and Juba are best known. After Cæsar conquered Juba I, Numidia became a Roman province, but Augustus gave the western part to Juba II. Among the more important places were Hippo, Raguis, Zama and Cirta, afterward called Constantina, and now Constantine.

Nur-ed-Din′ Mahmud, emir and sultan of Syria, was born at Damascus in 1116 A. D. He is noted for his defeat of the first and second crusades of the Christians, the conquering of Tripolis, Antioch and Damascus, and the taking of all the Christian strongholds in Syria in 1151. In 1168 he was made sultan of Syria and Egypt, and while preparing to invade Egypt, died at Damascus in May, 1173. He was the bitterest enemy of Christianity, but was a patron of science, art and literature and a good administrator of justice.

Nu′remberg or Nürn′berg, a city in Middle Franconia, a province of Bavaria, stands on the River Pegnitz, 95 miles from Munich. It is one of the most interesting cities of Germany, with its old walls, gates, bridges and fountains. The castle, built by Conrad II and Frederick Barbarossa, is famed for its paintings and wood carvings. The most notable buildings are St. Lawrence church (1274), St. Sebald’s church (1225), the Italian Renaissance town hall (1622), the gymnasium (1526), the new law courts, the Germanic Museum and the library of 70,000 volumes. The city has no foreign commerce outside of that in toys, known as Nuremberg wares, but has a large home trade in metal and wood specialties, bone carvings, type, lead pencils and chemicals. Nuremberg was first heard of in 1050, and became a free city in 1219. The Hohenzollerns sold their rights to it in 1417, and it immediately began to rise as the German home of arts and inventions and became a center of commerce. The discovery of the Cape passage to India and the Thirty Years’ War proved the city’s ruin, and although it retained its independence until 1803, it entered the Rhenish Confederation, and in 1806 became one of the cities of Bavaria. Population 332,651.

Nuta′tion, regular bending of plant parts, such as bud scales, flower leaves, stems etc., due to unequal growth on the sides. The stimulus inciting it may be light, heat or gravity. (See Irritability.) Thus the flowers of the tulip and crocus are sensitive to temperature changes of a few degrees, opening with rising and closing with falling temperature, because the growth of the outer face is hastened and that of the inner face retarded, and vice versa. When a cylindrical stem has its growth hastened on every side in regular succession, the tip describes a more or less regular circle, as in twining plants like the hop and morning glory. Some nutations are apparently spontaneous.

Nut′hatch, a small creeping bird seen running up and down the trunks of trees, getting its name from its habit of hatching open nuts it has previously wedged in the bark of trees. It is wonderfully nimble, an expert gymnast, finding it no trouble at all to walk along a limb head downward. It has a rather slender, strong straight bill, its sharp claws are well adapted for holding to the bark, the tail is short and square, and is not used in climbing. Its plumage is slate-colored and smooth, not fluffy like its cousin, the chickadee’s. It is seen chiefly in winter, during nesting season seeking seclusion. The white-breasted nuthatch is a common winter bird in the eastern part of the country, its cheerful “Yank! yank!

Image: WHITE-BREASTED NUTHATCH

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hank! hank!” welcome in the winter stillness; also welcome is the industry and success of its hunting for insect-eggs and larvæ. Other food to its liking, are nuts and seeds. It is frequently seen in friendly association with the titmice. Its slate-colored coat is relieved by black on top of the head and on the wings; its tail is rusty black touched with white; sides of head and under parts white. In the spring it retreats to the deep woods, patiently digs out a hole on a dead limb, lines this hole with feathers and other soft material, making a snug nest for the many white eggs — five to eight, sometimes 10. The red-breasted nuthatch is smaller than the preceding, and is more northerly in its range, nesting from Maine northward and in the mountains farther south.

Nut′meg. See Spices.

Nutri′tion (in plants), the processes by which food is obtained and utilized. Plants obtain their food (which see) in two ways, by absorption and by manufacture. With a few exceptions, plants which obtain their food ready-made are unable to engulf it and must take it into the body in solution. (See Absorption.) If insoluble in water, they must first digest it. (See Digestion.) All prepared food is derived directly or indirectly from other organisms. A few plants capture small insects for the sake of the food derived from their bodies. Parasites, that is, creatures growing on or in a living being (called, therefore, the host), derive their food directly from it; saprophytes in a similar way obtain their food from a dead organism. There is every possible gradation between parasites and saprophytes; and between saprophytes and green plants, which are able to make all of their food out of inorganic material. Yet many green plants absorb organic matter, i. e., matter once a part of a living being; this is the reason for applying fertilizers and manures to gardens and fields. Many, perhaps all, colorless plants can make the most complex foods (proteids), provided simpler foods and necessary salts are supplied. Only green plants, however, and of these only the green parts, can make carbohydrate foods, like sugars, starch and the like, out of carbon dioxide and water. (See Photosynthesis.) When these foods have been formed in sufficient amount, the green plants can also produce proteids. Most plants make more food than they require. Reserve food is stored, usually in solid form, in special tissues. These storage regions have been greatly improved by cultivation, the common vegetables (seeds, tubers, bulbs, roots, leaves, and even flower buds) being the product of proper breeding and of growing the plants under unusually favorable conditions for nutrition. In its broadest sense, nutrition includes the use of foods in assimilation, respiration and growth. These topics are separately treated. In the course of the chemical processes of nutrition (see Metabolism) a great variety of waste products arise, such as gums, resins, volatile oils, tannins, alkaloids etc. These the plant secretes and removes them thus from its general metabolism. See Secretion.

C. R. Barnes.

Nyas′a or Nyanja, the most southern of the great East African lakes, is 260 miles from Tanganyika and 400 miles from the east coast. It is 1,570 feet above sea level, very deep, rapidly descending from its high and rocky shores, and measures about 350 miles long by 40 miles broad from east to west. It was known by the Portuguese as Maravi in the 17th century, but was first navigated by Livingstone, and its situation exactly determined in 1859.

Nyasaland (nē-äs′ sä-lănd), the name given to a British Central Africa protectorate, the country lying immediately south, west and northwest of Lake Nyasa, in East Africa. Its area is 40,980 square miles, population about 1,000,000 natives and nearly 700 Europeans. It has no outside boundaries, but is the region in which the African Lakes company of Glasgow operates in connection with the missionaries of the Church of Scotland, with principal stations at Blantyre and Bandawe. Nine missions are at work, and over 60,000 natives are at school. The company and mission stations were founded on the recommendation of Dr. Livingstone to check the Arab slave trade. It is now under the administration of the British foreign office, by a resident commissioner. Its products are rice, coffee, rubber, ivory and cotton. The capital is Zomba. Some trouble was caused in 1888–90 by the claim of sovereignty made by Portugal; but the sphere of the Portuguese Nyasa company, with a charter from the Portuguese crown, is the region between the Rovuma, Lake Nyasa and the Lurio. There are steamers on the lake and on Shiré River, two railways, telegraphs and 23 postoffices. See Central Africa Protectorate.

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OAK

O, the fifteenth letter, is a vowel, and represents seven sounds. It is produced through the rounded lips, and is therefore classified as the labial vowel. Its principal sounds are the long one in bone and the short one in nod. Variants of these are heard in orb, son, do^ (food) and wolf (book). With other vowels it forms diagraphs and diphthongs. Anciently it was a numeral (n) as well as a letter, O with a bar over it being 11,000. O' with an apostrophe after it in Irish names is a prefix meaning son oft as O'Connell, son of Connell.

Oak, species of Quercus, a genus containing about 200 species, all natives of the

northern hemisphere. About 50 [Species b e -o n g to NorthAmer-i c a , and among them occur some of the finest and best-known o f our forest-trees. They are easily recognized by their characteristic leaves and especially b y their peculiar fruit,the well - known acorns. Among our most conspicuous species are the white oak (Q, alba), red oak (Q. rubra), scarlet oak (Q. coccinea), burr-oak (Q. macrocarpa), chestnut-oak (Q. acumin-ata) and live oak (Q. Virginiana). The white oak is a great, stately^ tree, 70 to 80 feet high, and still higher in the forest. In the open its branches spread wide. The bark is light gray in color, and not so rough as that of most hickories. The leaves are simple, alternate, obovate, bright green above and paler below; when young they are woolly and red; they turn dark red in the fall and may remain on the tree all winter. The acorns have rough cups, usually growing in pairs. The range is from Maine to Minnesota and southward; the tree is at its best on the western slopes of

OAK-BRANCH IN FRUIT

the Alleghanies. It Is one of our most valuable timber-trees; the wood is used in shipbuilding, in the manufacture of carriages, for interior finish and for other purposes. The tree lives to a great age. The red oak grows under a variety of conditions. The tree grows 50* 80 or 150 feet high, has a round top, the foliage abundant but the leaves< so attached that they give this tree of girth and height a light and airy appearance. The bark is reddish brown and comparatively smooth, the leaves are simple, alternate, dark green above and pale green below. The acorn-cup is shallow, the nut large. The wood is porous and not highly valued. In autumn the scarlet oak wears leaves of the most brilliant red, and at all seasons it is a very picturesque tree. It varies in height from 50 to 90 feet, sometimes higher; is narrow at the top; the bark rough and grayish-brown; the leaves large and lustrous. The acorns are quite large, the cup scaly. It is highly valued as an ornamental tree0 The burr-oak is hardy, beautiful and a valuable timber. It is widely distributed — found from Montana to Pennsylvania and south to Texas, and also grows in Maine, Vermont and Massachusetts. East of the Alleghanies it is comparatively rare, and is at its best in Illinois, Indiana and the Mississippi Basin. In some regions it rises even 150 feet, but the average is about 75; with space for out-reaching, the tree is wide-spreading. The bark is deeply furrowed and brownish-gray; the leaves are long, shiny and dark-green above, silvery white underneath. The acorns are very large, the cup is extremely rough and there is a noticeable fringe around the edge. The wood is dark brown, the strongest of the oaks, and is highly valued. The chestnut-oak is a magnificent tree, one of the most beautiful of the oaks. It rises tall and straight; its height 60, 70 or 100 feet, its leaves somewhat like those of the chestnut. The bark is light gray, almost white; the acorns are small and grow close to the branch. The bark is rich in tannin, the wood used in cooperage. The range of the tree is from Vermont to Alabama and westward, and it is found at its best in the mountains of Tennessee and North Carolina. The live oak is a beautiful southern form of oak, its leaves evergreen. The range is from Virginia southward near the coast to Florida, where the trees are especially^ abundant, and west to Mexico. It sometimes is

OAK-APPLES

1368

OBERAMMERGAU

no more than a shrub, sometimes rises 60 feet. It is a wide-spreading tree, the bark brown and deeply furrowed, the leaves dark-green, small and glossy. The yellow wood is strong but difficult to work, and takes a fine polish; it is valued in shipbuilding, and the bark yields considerable tannin. See Mathews: Familiar Trees and Lounsberry: A Guide to the Trees.

Oak=Apples, called also nutgalls and gall-nuts, are round balls about as large as an apple, found on the leaves and stems of oaks and produced by the action of insects. The insect pierces the plant and places an egg with a small quantity of poisonous fluid in the opening. The gall or apple grows rapidly and is fully formed before the egg hatches^ The insect remains in the apple during its second stage, and finally as a gallfly eats its way into the world. The nuts are used in making ink and tannin.

Oak'land, Cal., a city of Alameda County is on the eastern side of San Francisco Bay, four and one half miles from San Francisco. It is a beautiful city, well-shaded and watered, with many fine residences — many of them the homes of the business men of San Francisco. Oakland has an excellent public school svstem, many school buildings and a parochial system (R. C.) kept in perfect gradation with the public schools. Among the higher educational institutions are California College (Baptist), St. Mary's College (R. C.), two academies (R. C.) and, connected with the public high-school, a well-equipped observatory. Pacific Theological Seminary (Congregational) and a Catholic college are established here, and at Berkeley, adjoining Oakland on the north, is the University of California. Noteworthy buildings are the postoffice, city-hall, hospitals, Home for the Blind, St. Joseph's Home for Deaf-Mutes, the Y. M. C. A. and the Y. W. C. A. The city manufactures cotton and woolen goods, jute, iron, nails, shoes and pottery, has large canning factories, planing and lumber mills; and shipbuilding is carried on. Population 150,174.

Oasis (o'd-s'is}, a fertile spot in the desert, due to the presence of wells or underground springs. The French have made oases in the Algerian deserts by sinking artesian wells. Some African oases are large enough to be inhabited, and grow crops of rice and millet, and are shaded with palms.

Oats, species of the genus Avena, belonging to the grass family. The common cultivated oat is A. saliva, which is native to the eastern hemisphere. The genus contains about 50 species, which are widespread in the north temperate regions. In the United States three species occur, the purple oat (A. striata), Smith's oat (A. Smithii) and the common wild oat (A. fatud). The oat is hardy, thrives best in a cool, moist climate, and is extensively grown in the United States, Canada and northern Europe. Rus-

sia and the United States rank first as oat-producing countries. The grain is of great importance as food for man and beast, the plant is valued for forage, hay and straw. It has few insect enemies, but is injured by rust and smut.

Oaxaca (wa-hafka'), a state of Mexico, near the isthmus, is bounded on the north by Puebla and Vera Cruz, east by Vera Cruz and Chiapas, south by the Pacific and west by Guerrero. It contains 35,382 square miles and the population is estimated at i,041,035,of whom the much larger part are civilized Indians. The greater portion of the area is mountainous, the Sierra Madre del Sur rising to a height of 12,000 feet, and running across the whole width of the state from east to west. The capital, of the same name, 210 miles southeast of Mexico City, has a population of 37,469. The resources are among the best in Mexico, its elevation giving it a considerable rainfall and a less oppressive climate than that found in several of the states of that country. Its soil is good, and wheat, coffee, sugar, cotton, cocoa, plantains, and fruits of all kinds are exported.

Ob'elisk, a memorial monument of stone with a pointed top. It usually has four faces, and is broadest at the base. These monuments were used by the Egyptians at the entrances of their temples, probably to record the honors and triumphs of their kings. They are covered with inscriptions in Egyptian hieroglyphics or picture writing. They are very ancient, going back to the 4th dynasty in Egypt, though the larger part date from the i8th and igth dynasties. Two large ones, which stood at Heliopolis, were carried by Rameses II to Alexandria, and have been called Cleopatra's Needles. One of these was erected on the Thames embankment in London in 1878, and the other, presented by the khedive of Egypt to the United States, is in Central Park, New York City. There are others at Rome, Florencei Berlin and Paris. Washington Monument, finished in 1885 in the city of Washington, is the largest obelisk in the world. It is 55 square feet at the base, and 555 feet in height. See Egyptian Obelisks by Gorringe.

Oberammergau (o'ber-am'mer-gou'), a village in Bavaria, 45 miles southwest of Munich. It is celebrated as the place where the famous miracle-play representing the Passion of our Savior is played once in ten years. It is the only survival of the old miracle-plays, being excepted from the order abolishing them in Europe in 1779. Ir 1633, in gratitude for an escape from the plague which devastated the surrounding country, the people of the village vowed to perform this play once in ten years. The actors, in number 350 and the chorus of 80 members, are all taken from the villagers. It is played for twelve Sundays, in a large theater holding 5,000 spectators, many of whom are

OBERLIN

1369

OCE AN-CU RRENTS

visitors from all parts of the world. See MIRACLE-PLAYS and Homes of Ober-Ammer-gau by Greatorex.

O'berlin, O., a town in Lorain County, near Lake Erie, 34 miles west of Cleveland. It is a college town, with some factories and business blocks. It is the seat of Oberlin College, established in 1833 and chartered as Oberlin Collegiate Institute. In 1850 the name was changed to Oberlin College. It is a coeducational institution, and, besides the college, theological seminary and academy, provides courses for graduate students. The number of instructors in all departments including the conservatory of music, is 142, the students in attendance 2,025, an(i the number of volumes in the library about 125,000. Population 4,365.

Obi (o'be) or Ob is the great river of western Siberia. It rises in two branches in the Altai Mountains in the Chinese dominions, and flows north, 2,120 miles, into the Gulf of Obi in the Arctic Ocean. It is very little used for navigation, but with the growth of the country will probably become one of the great water-routes for commerce. Its chief tributary is the Irtish.

O'Brien, Most Rev. Cornelius, D.D., Ph.D., F.R.S. Can., Roman Catholic Archbishop of Halifax since 1882, was born in New Glasgow, Prince Edward Island, on May 4, 1843, an<^ was educated at St. Dun-stan's College in Charlottetown and at the Propaganda in Rome. He has been president of the Royal Society of Canada, for which he wrote The Supernatural in Nature and other papers His published works include The Philosophy of the Bible, Memoirs of Bishop Burke; and Cabot's Landfall.

Observ'atory, an institution equipped for the study of astronomical or meteorological phenomena. In distinction from a laboratory, which is a place where phenomena can be brought to pass and experiments tried, an observatory is a place for the observation of phenomena over which we have no control, as an eclipse of the moon or a sudden variation in the earth's magnetism. Those institutions which are exclusively devoted to observational work are the purely astronomical observatories. Scarcely any other kind existed previous to the invention of the spectroscope by Kirchhoff and Bunsen. Recently, however, a number of astrophysical observatories have been established — notably at Potsdam in Germany, Meudon in France, Tulse Hill in London and Cambridge, Washington, Allegheny, Columbus, Lake Geneva and Mount Hamilton in America. In these institutions many experiments have to be tried as well as many observations made; for the spectra of stars, planets, nebulas, comets have to be interpreted as well as described. And their interpretation can be given only after experiment has shown how to duplicate them. Hence an astrophysical observatory

is generally also a laboratory, provided with electrical, photographic and spectroscopic apparatus. The same is more or less true of a magnetic observatory.

The typical astronomical observatory is equipped with a clock and an instrument for correcting this clock from the passage of stars over the meridian of the place. It is provided also with a telescope, housed in a dome which can easily be opened to the sky on one side and easily rotated. The more important observatories of the world are: Yerkes Observatory at Lake Geneva, with a refracting telescope whose object glass is 40 inches in diameter; Lick Observatory at Mount Hamilton, Cal., with an objective of 36 inches diameter; Harvard Observatory at Cambridge, Mass., with a branch in Arequipa, South America; this institution employs between 30 and 40 workers and is making a superb spectroscopic survey of the heavens; Naval Observatory at Washington and McCormick at the University of Virginia each have 26 inch glasses, while Halstead Observatory at Princeton University follows with one of 23 J inches. Greenwich Observatory in England is a national institution, which has a brilliant history and is doing a great variety of work. The corresponding institution for France is Paris Observatory, and, like Greenwich in England and Pulkowa in Russia, it has a history of which it may well be proud.

Obsid'ian, a natural glass, a variety of lava. It is hard, brittle, with a glassy luster, partially transparent, and with sharp edges that cut like glass. It is black, dark gray, green, red, brown, striped or spotted, a specimen usually having but one of these various colors. It is used for jewelry and ornamental articles, and in early times was employed for arrowheads, knives and mirrors. It is found in Yellowstone Park and other localities in the United States; in Iceland, the Lipari Islands, Vesuvius, Sardinia, Hungary, Spain, Mexico and South America.

O'cean=Cur'rents. There are some very remarkable currents in the great seas. Some are surface-currents and some move along on the very bottom of the sea. The latter are the great inflows of cold water from the polar regions. The surface-currents are caused by the winds, and are warm or cold according as they pass from a warmer or colder climate. The effect of these currents upon climatic conditions makes them of great importance. They may be considered as constituting two great and somewhat similar systems, the Atlantic and the Pacific, which may be subdivided into the North and the South Atlantic and the North and the South Pacific respectively. The currents of the North Atlantic are the North Equatorial current, the Gulf Stream (q. v.) and the North African current, which form a great circle with a large Sargasso Sea in

OCEANIA

O'CONNELL

the middle, and the Greenland and Labrador (q. v.) currents. The currents of the South Atlantic, are the South Equatorial, the Brazilian, and the South Connecting currents, which also form a circle with a Sargasso Sea in the middle. The currents of the South Pacific are the South Equatorial and Australian currents and of the North Pacific, the North Equatorial, Japan (Kuro Sivo) and Humboldt (Peruvian) currents. Charts showing the courses of these different currents will be found in almost any of the higher-grade school geographies, with some reference to their specific influences upon climatic conditions. Currents moving at a very slow rate of speed are called drifts.

Oce'ania or Ocean'ica, the islands and archipelagoes between southeastern Asia and western America. They comprise Polynesia, the Malay Archipelago and Australasia, all known poetically as, together, the island-world of the Pacific. See AUSTRALASIA, AUSTRALIA, HAWAII, MALAYS, NEW GUINEA, NEW ZEALAND and POLYNESIA.

Ocean=Routes. There are great ocean-routes just as there are great land-routes, great steamship-systems just as there are great railroad-systems. The principal ocean-routes run east and west, as do the principal railroad or land-routes. The one is, as it were, an extension or continuation of the other. The ocean-routes may be divided into two great divisions, the Atlantic and the Pacific. The Atlantic routes are many, connecting almost all ports of the eastern coast of the American continents and Europe. The Pacific routes are not so many and are not yet so much traversed, though the near future is sure to witness a great change in respect to this. The principal Pacific routes are the Puget-Sound route; the San Francisco - Honolulu -Yokohoma route; the Yokohoma-Hong-Kong-Singapore route to Europe, connecting there with the Atlantic routes; and the less traversed Puget Sound-Honolulu-Sidney; San Francisco-Honolulu - Sidney; Yokohoma - Hong-Kong-Sidney; Puget Sound-Manila; San Francisco-Manila; and Mid-Pacific routes. The Puget-Sound route is the shortest route between America and Japan and is traversed by about all vessels sailing for Yokohoma from Vancouver, Seattle, Tacoma or Portland and frequently by vessels sailing from San Francisco. The distance from Vancouver to Yokohoma by the Puget-Sound route is only 4,560 miles. The San Francisco-Honolulu-Yokohoma route is 7,560 miles or 3,000 miles longer than the Puget-Sound route. It has the advantage of the intermediate port of Honolulu and is much traversed. The San Francisco-Honolulu-Manila route is 9,005 miles, while the Puget Sound-Manila route is only a little over 6,©oo miles.

deelet (o's$-Ut), a leopard-like cat that has come from the tropics into some of our

southern states, is frequently met in southern Texas and occurs in lower Louisiana. It varies in length from two to three feet, and a full-grown animal reaches a weight of twenty-five pounds. Its fur is tawny or reddish-gray, marked with black spots, stripes and bands. The black color sometimes is in the form of a ring inclosing a

OCELOT

spot somewhat darker than the general color of the fur. The ocelot is an agile climber, spends a good deal of time on the lower branches of trees on the lookout for prey; and feeds chiefly on birds and small quadrupeds. It sometimes is known as the tiger-cat, and as a rule is bad-tempered.

O'Con'nell, Daniel, the Irish liberator, was born in County Kerry, Aug. 6, 1775. He was admitted to the Irish bar in 1794 and became famous as counsel, the counselor being one of the titles by which he was known among his followers. His large practice, worth, he said, $35,000 a year, was sacrificed for his country, when he took a leading part in Irish politics. He was head of the Roman Catholic party and contended for the admission of Catholics to Parliament, which he secured in 1829. In 1823 the Catholic Association formed by him became very poweriul, with a large income. He entered Parliament in 1829, supporting the Whig party during the reform struggle, advocating free trade in corn, negro emancipation, the repeal of the laws against the Jews and universal suffrage. One of the greatest of orators, his remarkable speeches in Parliament, on® of which lasted for seven hours, were equaled only by his popular addresses throughout Ireland. In 1840 he founded his famous Repeal Association, the members of which paid from $50 to 25 cents annual fees, and which in 1843 had an m~ come of over $200,000. In 1844 O'Connell, with his son and five others, was tried for sedition and sentenced to imprisonment for one year and a fine of $10,000; and, though the house of lords soon set aside the verdict

O'CONNOR

1371

ODESSA

fourteen weeks in prison brought on the aliment of which he died. The new party of Young Ireland now separated from O'Con-nell because of his unwillingness to use force in obtaining the independence of his country, withdrawing from the Association. The potato famine followed. Sick with the sight of the suffering of his country, sad with the consciousness of failure and worn out with a struggle with disease, O'Connell left Ireland for Rome, longing to die there, but only reached Genoa, where he died May 15, 1847. His heart, at his own request, was carried to Rome, and his body buried at Dublin, at the base of a tower 165 feet high. See Leaders of Public Opinion in Ireland by Lecky; O'Connell in the Statesmen Series; and Life by his son.

O'Con'nor,Thomas Power, an Irish statesman, was born at Athlone, County Ros-common, Oct. 5, 1848. He was educated at the College of the Immaculate Conception, Athlone, and at Queen's College, Galway, graduating with honors in 1866. He entered journalism in Dublin the next year, going three years later to London. In 1876 Mr. O'Connor published the first volume of his Life of Benjamin Disraeli, but later repub-lished it as Lord Beaconsfield, condensing all his material into one volume. In 1880 he entered Parliament as member for Gal-way, and was returned both for Galway and Liverpool in 1885. He chose to accept the latter, and has represented one division of that city ever since. In 1883 he was elected president of the Irish National League of Great Britain. He has edited a Cabinet of Irish Literature, and published The Parnell Movement. In 1891 he issued a Life of Parnell. Mr. O'Connor still is a member of Parliament and is editor-in-chief of The Era.

Ocon'to, Wis., a town on Green Bay, at the mouth of Oconto River. It has large sawmills and a large trade in pine lumber. Population 5,629.

Octa'via, the sister of the Emperor Augustus, was the wife of Mark Antony, whom she married in 40 B. C. to secure his reconciliation to her brother. Though she was noted for beauty, noble disposition and womanly virtues, Antony forsook her in a few years for Cleopatra. In 23 B. C. war broke out between Antony and Augustus, and he sent Octavia a divorce. She showed her noble character by caring for the children of Cleopatra with her own after the death of Antony. She died in n B. C. See Shakespeare's Antony and Cleopatra.

Octa'vian. See AUGUSTUS.

Octo'ber, from the Latin octo, meaning eight, was the eighth month of the year at Rome, but became the tenth when Numa changed the beginning of the year to the first of January. The Roman senate made many attempts to change the name.

Oc'topus, also called devilfish, a mollusk related to the squid. It has no shell, either

external or internal,, and belongs to the class (Cephalopoda) called m general cuttlefish. It has eight arms provided with suckers, arranged around a central soft, baggy body. The squid (which see) has ten arms. The body of the octopus is rounded, with large staring eyes, and situated in the center of a membrane which serves to connect the bases of the arms. There are a number of species. They live amid coral reefs or rocks, and feed on mollusks and Crustacea. The common

OCTOPUS

octopus of the West Indies and the Mediterranean is about nine feet long and weighs about sixty-eight pounds. It is eaten in the Mediterranean ports, and the flesh is also used for bait. On our Atlantic coast from Cape Hatteras down, a species occurs. One species found in the Pacific is sixteen feet long and has a spread of about twenty-eight feet. The body is so small in comparison to the length of the limbs, that it measures only six inches in diameter and one foot in length. Some authorities declare the octopus is naturally timid and will not attack human beings, calling the lurid description in Victor Hugo's Toilers of the Sea a pure creation of fancy. Others affirm that pearl-divers and shell-collectors have fallen victim to them. Workers on the reef perhaps were frightened to death by sight of the monstrous, circling arms, staring eyes and powerful teeth.

O'der, one of the main rivers of Germany, rises in Moravia, crosses Silesia, Brandenburg and Pomerania, and finally empties through three channels into the Baltic. It is 550 miles long, but owing to its rapid fall and the sediment left at the mouth of its many tributaries navigation is difficult, and great expense is necessary to prevent its overflowing.

Odes'sa, the fourth city in Russia, a seaport of the Black Sea, about half way between the Dnieper and Dniester Rivers. It-is built facing the sea, on cliffs, with deep ravines, and with galleries hollowed out of the soft rock, in which many of the poorest people live. It is a modern city, founded in 1794 near an old Turkish fort, but has grown rapidly, being the chief shipping-port for the corn-growing districts of southern Russia. The harbor is protected by moles against the dangerous winds of the Black Sea, and is menaced by ice hardly more than a fortnight in the whole year. The trade is largely in grain, principally wheat, but sugar, wool and flour are also exported. It also has sugar and oil refineries, and tobacco, leather, soap and chemicals are manufactured. It has a university with 1,714 students, a public library, historical museum, cathedral, opera-house and great grain warehouses and elevators. Water is brought to the city from the Dniester by an aqueduct 27 miles long. Odessa is known as a home of the cholera, for its persecution of the Jews and as headquarters of the nihilists. Population 520,000.

O′din, the chief god of Scandinavian mythology. He is not the creator of the world, but its ruler and the ruler of heaven. His home is in Asgard, whence he sends forth daily his two black ravens, Hugin and Munin (Thought and Memory), to bring news of all that is happening in the world. As god of war he holds his court in Valhalla, where all brave warriors gather after death. He became the wisest of gods by drinking from Mimer's fountain, but at the price of an eye. Frigga is his queen, though he had other wives. His Saxon name, Woden, is perpetuated in our Wednesday or Woden's day.

Œdipus (ĕd′ĭ-pŭs), a hero in Greek legend, whose story is the subject of some of the finest tragedies of Sophocles and Euripides. He was the son of Laius, king of Thebes, who, having learned from an oracle that his own son would kill him, exposed him at his birth. He was discovered by a herdsman, named Œdipus from his swollen feet, and brought up by the king of Corinth as his own son. Learning from an oracle that he was to kill his father and marry his mother, he went to Thebes to escape his fate. Drawing near the city, he met the chariot of the king and was ordered out of the way, which brought on a quarrel in which he slew his father, not knowing him. The Thebans offered the kingdom and, the hand of the queen to whoever would deliver them from the Sphinx, who proposed to all who passed her a riddle, putting to death those who could not solve it. Œdipus offered himself, and she asked: “What being has four feet, two feet and three feet and only one voice; but whose feet vary, and when it has the most, is weakest?” Œdipus answered: “Man,” at which the Sphinx threw herself headlong from the rock where she sat. Œdipus thus became king and the husband of his mother. When a plague devastated the country, the oracle promised relief when the murderer of Laius should be banished, and Œdipus learned from a seer that he had fulfilled the prediction of the oracle and killed his father, and for a wife had his mother. In horror he put out his eyes, while his mother hanged herself. He wandered away with his daughter, Antigone, and near Athens was taken from earth by the Eumenides.

Oer′sted (ẽr′stĕth), Hans Christian, a distinguished Danish physicist, who first discovered a connection between electricity and magnetism, was born on Aug. 14, 1777, and died at Copenhagen, March 9, 1851. He was educated in Copenhagen, where he took his doctor's degree in 1800, and in 1806 he was appointed to a professorship in physics. On July 21, 1820, he was passing the current of a large battery through a platinum wire, when he discovered that a magnetic needle near by was deflected. As shown by its consequences, this proved to be an epoch-making discovery, for which the Royal Society awarded him the Copley medal and the Paris Institute a mathematical prize amounting to 3,000 francs. See Ampère.

Offenbach (ṓf′fen-bäk′), Jacques, a Franco-Jewish composer, was born at Cologne, Germany, June 21, 1819. He settled at Paris, and became manager in one of the theaters. He composed a great number of operettas, but is best known for a series of burlesque operas, which make him the father of the modern comic opera. The Grand Duchess, The Beautiful Helen, Genevieve of Brabant, Barbe-bleue and Madame Favart are among the most notable, the last being very popular in England. He died at Paris, Oct. 5, 1880.

Og′den, Robert Curtis, American educator and magazine-writer, was born at Philadelphia, Pa., in 1836. He received the degree of A. M. from Yale, and LL.D. from Tulane University. Mr. Ogden is president of the trustees of Hampton Institute and a trustee of Tuskegee Institute. (See Hampton and Tuskegee). He also is president of the Southern Education Board and a member of many educational associations.

Ogden, Utah, county-seat of Weber County, at the union of Weber and Ogden Rivers, where the Weber passes through Wahsatch Mountains. It is situated 37 miles north of Salt Lake City, and is 4,340 feet above the sea. It was founded by Brigham Young in 1848-50, is in a rich agricultural and mining region, while at the city limits is the opening of Ogden Canon. The picturesque beauty of this place attracts many tourists, and the water-power of the falls is utilized by the electrical works, which supply light and heat for Ogden and Salt Lake City. It is a railroad center, and has a Methodist university, a foundry and large mills, breweries, canneries, pickle factories, beet-sugar factories and woolen mills. It has public and parochial schools, other excellent educational institutions and the service of five railroads. Population 25,580.

Og′densburg, N. Y., a city and port of entry in St. Lawrence County, on the St. Lawrence and connected by steam ferry with Prescott, Ontario. The city lies 175 miles northwest of Albany, and has communication by river westward to the Great Lakes and eastward by Montreal and Quebec to the Atlantic. By rail it is served by the Rutland Railroad and the Rome, Watertown and Ogdensburg Railroad. It has a large grain and lumber trade, and manufactures silk, flour, gloves, dressskirts, leather and brass goods, lumber and lumber-products. Among the prominent buildings are the custom-house, state armory, public library, state insane hospital, Saint John de Deo's Hospital (quarantine), an orphanage and a home for the aged. Besides a creditable school-system the city owns a public-school, free academy and Saint Mary's Academy (free). Population 15,933.

Oglesby (ō′g’lz-bĭ), Richard James, American soldier and statesman, was born in Oldham County, Ky., July 25, 1824. Working at the carpenter's trade and studying law until he was twenty, he began practice in 1845 at Sullivan, Ill. He served as a first-lieutenant in the Mexican War, and at its close he returned to his profession at Decatur. On the outbreak of the Civil War he resigned his seat in the state senate, to which he had been elected in 1860, and plunged into the contest, leaving for the front at the head of the Eighth Illinois. He participated in the battles of Ft. Henry and Donelson, commanding a brigade in each. He was severely wounded at Corinth, but in April, 1863, he returned to duty as, a major-general in command of the sixteenth corps. He was elected governor of Illinois, and served in that capacity from 1865 to 1869. He was re-elected in 1872, but was chosen United States senator in January of 1873. He was governor again from 1885 to 1889, and died at Elkhart, Ill., April 24, 1899.

O′glethorpe, James Edward, an English general and founder of Georgia, was born at London, Dec. 21, 1698. He served in the army, and was thirty years in Parliament. He planned a colony in America as a refuge for debtors, then imprisoned in jails, and for persecuted German Protestants. George II gave the land, which was named Georgia after him, Parliament contributed $50,000, and in 1733 he took out 130 persons and founded Savannah. Another party, including the two Wesleys, went out in 1735, and in 1738 Ogelthorpe returned to Georgia with a regiment of 600 men, in anticipation of a war with Spain. He invaded Florida, was unsuccessful in an attack on St. Augustine, but repulsed a Spanish invasion of Georgia. He left the colony in 1743, and surrendered the charter to the British government in 1752. He died in England, Jan. 30, 1785. See Life by Bruce.

O′gowe″ or Ogoway, a river in the western part of Africa, that flows into the Atlantic near Cape Lopez. In the rainy season it is a deep, broad stream, though numerous islands and sand-banks prevent large vessels from ascending it. In the dry season it shrinks to a narrow current. The river was discovered by Du Chaillu in 1856.

Ohi′o. The state took for its own the name of the river, called by the French explorers “The Beautiful,” and by the Indians, some combination of vowels and consonants which by use was worn and softened into Ohio. The state extends through about three and a half degrees of latitude and about four and a quarter degrees of longitude, the lessening length of the latter leaving the state nearly square—a shield in shape—with an area of something near 40,000 square miles. It lies between Michigan and Lake Erie on the north, Pennsylvania and West Virginia on the east, West Virginia and Kentucky on the south and Indiana on the west. Population 4,767,121.

Surface. Along the Ohio, whose low-water line on the right shore forms part of the eastern and all of the southern boundary, the surface is hilly, and here and there the scenery is extremely beautiful. West and north it is rolling, in places nearly level, though a general rise allows a point in Logan County, west of the central meridian, the honor of being the highest. The state is drained by a goodly number of streams which wind through fertile valleys on their way to the Ohio or to Lake Erie. The valleys of the south-flowing rivers, outside of the glacial area, are bordered by drift-terraces upon which are mounds, once the sites of Indian villages. Of the streams flowing to the lake, some find or have created excellent harbors at their mouths, as the Maumee and Sandusky, in bays of the same name.

Climate. The rise and fall of the mercury indicate a climate of extremes, and February and June this year are not copies of those months last year, and give no ground for a guess what they will be like next year. It was said by one of old time, whose humor leaned to truth's side, that: “Ohio has no climate but in its stead a great variety of weather samples.” The rainfall by the year is usually sufficient, though “very wet” and “very dry” are sometimes not many miles apart. Some of the rivers, notably the Ohio, are subject to floods, which write their history in the desolation they leave behind them.

Natural Resources. The chief gifts that nature offers are coal, sandstone, limestone, iron ore, petroleum, gas, gypsum, the forests, fish in the creeks, rivers and lakes and various kinds of clay. In the east and southeast the carboniferous area underlies some 10,000 square miles. Here “coal-banks” are numerous, the farmer fills his own coal-house, and the smaller towns are supplied by men who haul coal “for a living.” Near Ohio River are vast mines, and a daily sight along the Baltimore and Ohio Railway and contributing roads, especially the Hocking Valley, is the long trains of immense cars loaded with coal and coke and drawn by monster engines which make the earth tremble as they thunder along. Most of the sandstone, including the brownstone much used in the east for house-fronts, is quarried in a tract whose western end is in Ohio. A beautiful stone of many warm colors, — red, yellow, brown, black, — is quarried near Mansfield. A church at Napoleon and a public library in Defiance at the junction of Maumee and Auglaize Rivers are examples of what can be made of this stone. The clay known as kaolin is used in giving weight to paper and a good printing-surface, but chiefly in the manufacture of chinaware. One of the two largest potteries in the United States is at East Liverpool, O. When the writer was a boy, his father brought home a bottle of “rock oil.” It was said to be a good medicine when applied to a horse's legs. Of this crude petroleum, in 1910, the production in the United States was 209,000,000 barrels, Ohio being fifth among the states in its production and seventh in value of its refinery output. Many Ohio cities are now supplied with natural gas from Ohio wells or piped from West Virginia and Indiana.

Agriculture. Perhaps the most in a given space can be told about Ohio as an agricultural state by giving extracts from the census and agricultural reports for 1910. The land surface of Ohio is approximately 26,073,600 acres, and of this area 24,105,708 acres are included in farms, nearly 80% of which is reported as improved land. In 1910 the acreage and yield of chief crops were corn, 3,960,000 acres yielding 144,540,000 bushels; oats, 1,765,000 acres, 65,658,000 bushels; wheat, 1,944,000 acres, 31,493,000 bushels; hay, 2,840,000 acres, 3,948,000 tons; potatoes, 182,000 acres, 14,924,000 bushels; tobacco, 92,700 acres, 75,087,000 lbs. Much attention is given to dairying, there being 905,125 dairy cows in the state. Number of other cattle, 932,482; horses, 910,224.

Manufactures. Among the earliest industries developed in this country was that founded upon the finding of iron-ore in the valley of the Hocking. At first the readily made charcoal was used for smelting. After a time a quality of coal was discovered in the northeastern part of the state which seemed the thing for which the ore was waiting to change to iron. Immense quantities of Lake Superior ore are smelted to-day in the smelting districts of Ohio — notably in Mahoning Valley. It will assist in forming a conception of the multiplicity and the variety of Ohio's manufacturing interests to glance over a small fraction of the products put upon the market by the 1,100 companies incorporated in the year ending November 16, 1906; the total capital stock quoted at $65,000,000: soaps, cheese, medicines, cigars, liquors, ice, wire-nails, sugar, farming implements, pianos, sanitary closets, condensed milk, boots, shoes, chemicals, bread, paints, jewelry, cement, fertilizers, automobiles, wire-fence, telephone apparatus, boilers, tile, and hundreds of others. Of 800 miscellaneous companies the capital stock is over $30,000,000. But all these and their like are simply supplementary to the great factories, foundries and rolling mills along the rivers or on the lakes — as the immense mill at Lorain, one of the largest in the world — and at various advantageous sites in many of the cities.

Transportation. In 1825 the legislature adopted a report of which the final result was the Ohio Canal and the lower division of the Miami and Erie Canal. The news was greeted by the usual noisy expressions of popular joy. These works were completed in 1833, and the entire canal system in 1842. The cost was almost $15,000,000. Their effect upon the growth and prosperity of the state was wonderful. The markets of the river, the lakes and the great city on the Hudson were opened to the Buckeye farmers. The northern and western parts of the state were brought nearer the east. The value of lands as well as of products was greatly enhanced. It is not necessary to name the many great lines of railroad that now pass through Ohio, east and west, north and south. Summing the miles of main track gives a total of 8,560; their second track, 1,436 miles. The grand total of value is $138,669,294, while the total value of the urban and interurban lines is $10,140,096.

Education. The early schools were not free schools supported by the public. The idea of such schools was of slow growth. An attempt to establish free schools and support them by a tax of one mill on the dollar, made in 1826, shows that the seed was planted, but the feeble efforts left scarcely a trace. The Akron law of 1846 and its extension throughout the state were long, firmly-planted steps forward. The high school, the superintendent, the county teachers' institute, manual training, state normal schools and a state commissioner of schools are other strides in the same direction. The commissioner's report for 1911 gives the number of school-houses erected within the year as 238; the township districts 114; separate districts 124; at a cost: township, $475,795; separate, $4,673,267; elementary school-houses as 10,071 and the high-school houses as 174; their value as $75,084,867; and their teachers as 28,032. The children's homes not only are humane institutions but, commonly, they are schools. There are 53 of these, caring in 1906 for 2,079 youth. The range of “expanse per capita”, from $9.12 to $237.45, plucks credulity by the nose. Some of these have farms and perhaps do not charge up their consumed products as expense. The following state institutions are educational in every sense: the school of the Sailors' and Soldiers' Orphans' Home; the School for the Blind; the Institution for the Education of the Deaf and Dumb — the fifth founded in the United States; the Institution for the Education of Imbecile Youth; the Boys' Industrial School; the Girls' Industrial Home — these for youth in need of “reforming”; and the Reformatory, at first named, and in reality still, the Intermediate Penitentiary. They are well-conducted as a rule, despite the fact that partisanship early assumed sway. The tendency is toward a cure of the evil.

The Teachers' Reading Circle movement began in 1882 in Ohio, and has spread into many states. Its purpose is to make the habit of reading pedagogy, literature, history and nature universal among teachers. The members number over 10,000. There also is a Pupils' Reading Circle. It is rapidly growing in numbers.

History. Politically speaking, the greatest event pertaining to this region was the Ordinance of 1787, passed by the Continental Congress in its last days. One provision of the ordinance is regarded as a fitting quotation in discourse of whatever sort about Ohio: “Religion, morality and knowledge being necessary to good government and the happiness of mankind, schools and the means of education shall be forever encouraged”. This lofty declaration was retained in the constitutions of 1802 and 1851. The political history of the northwest begins with the settlement — 1788 — at the mouth of the Muskingum. In 1800 the great northwest was divided into two unequal parts, the Eastern Division, as it was named, being, territorially, what now is Ohio, with a wedge-shaped piece of southwestern Indiana and that portion of the peninsula to the north which lies east of the meridian passing through the mouth of the Greater Miami. Among the formative events of Ohio history the following are written in italics: (1) the bold march of George Rogers Clark with a commission from Virginia; (2) the obstinate refusal of Maryland to enter the Union until her sister colonies, owning or claiming territory beyond the Ohio, should cede it for the general good to the Federal government, and the consequent cession of those lands; (3) the ordinance of 1787 providing for not less than three or more than five states; (4) the founding of Marietta and the setting up of a territorial government; (5) the battle of Fallen Timbers, with the Greenville treaty — 1795 — as its first fruit, its open door to homeseekers; (6) the division — 1800 — of the vast extent north of the Ohio and east of the Mississippi into the Eastern Section of the Northwest Territory and the Indiana Territory; (7) the act of Congress enabling the people of the former division to form a constitution and a state government; (8) the deed whereby it changed from a territory to a state, though which of three deeds did it is a question which, like Banquo's subliminal self, refuses to down and stay. The most recent critical discussion as to the date of Ohio's admission to the Union writes it March 1, 1803. Consult Ohio in the American Commonwealths Series and Short's Ohio.

Ohio, a river of the United States, one of the largest branches of the Mississippi. It was named by the French explorers La Belle Riviére (The Beautiful River). It is formed by the union of the Allegheny and Monongahela Rivers at Pittsburg, Pa., and flows southwest 975 miles, joining the Mississippi at Cairo, Illinois. It is from 400 to 3,000 feet wide, spreading out so as to become quite shallow in dry seasons. It is subject to floods from the accumulation of snows in the mountains near its headwaters; there is a series of terraces along the banks, which have evidently been the bed of the river. The boundary between Ohio, Indiana and Illinois on the north and West Virginia and Kentucky to the south is formed by the Ohio. At Louisville are falls, which are passed by means of a ship-canal. The river is navigable for its entire length, and carries enormous fleets of boats laden with coal, besides other products of the regions.

Ohio State University, at Columbus, was organized as Ohio Agricultural and Mechanical College, and was opened in 1873. By legislation in 1878 the name was changed to The Ohio State University. The university is maintained by an annual grant from the United States and permanent annual grants from the state. It comprises colleges of agriculture, arts, philosophy and science, engineering, law and veterinary medicine. The university is open to both sexes, and is nonsectarian. The instructors number 233, the students 3,181. It has a library comprising 70,000 volumes and an annual income of over $690,000.

Ohm (ōm), Georg Simon, a German mathematician and physicist, was born at Erlangen, March 16, 1787, and died at Münich, July 7, 1854. He was educated at the university of his native town, where he took his doctor's degree in 1811. In 1827 he published his great work on the galvanic circuit, in which he proved the simple relation existing between current, resistance and electromotive force, a relation known as Ohm's law. For this discovery Ohm was awarded the Copley medal by the Royal Society in 1841. In 1846-49 Kirchhoff extended this law and established two theorems known as Kirchhoff's laws, which include Ohm's as a special case. In acoustics Ohm discovered that the ear of itself analyzes any complex sound into simple tones in the manner contemplated in Fourier's theorem, a fact which later proved of great importance in the hands of Helmholtz. In 1852 Ohm was appointed to the chair of physics at the University of Munich. His most important work, by all odds, is his theorem concerning the galvanic circuit.

Oil City, Pa., a town lying on both sides of Allegheny River. It lies 133 miles northeast of Pittsburg, is in the oil-region, and is one of the largest oil-markets of the state. It has oil-refineries, engine and boiler factories and large manufactories of barrels. It has public and (R. C.) parochial schools, and among its noteworthy buildings are the Oil-Exchange, the Standard Oil Company’s office, Carnegie library and several churches. In 1892 the town was visited by an unusual catastrophe: a flood of burning oil from Titusville. Over $1,000,000 worth of property was destroyed. Population 15,657.

Oil-Wells. See Petro′leum.

Oils, a term used to indicate a large class of compounds. The more common animal and vegetable oils, which are the fatty or fixed oils, are all compounds of glycerine with fatty acids. The term fats is usually given to the solid forms, and oils to the fluid. The solid fats, however, become fluid when heated. All these fats and oils are lighter than water and will not mix with it. They penetrate paper or cloth, making it partly transparent, and leaving what is known as a grease-spot. When pure and fresh they usually have little or no taste or smell; but, when exposed to the air, they become darker in color, have a disagreeable taste and smell, and are called rancid. As examples of vegetable oils we have cottonseed-oil, linseed-oil, olive-oil, almond-oil and cocoa-butter. Linseed is brought largely from Russia and India; Africa supplies palm-oil; India and the Pacific islands cocoanut-oil; while the best olive-oil is brought from Italy. In animal oils the principal ones are butter, lard, tallow, neatsfoot-oil and sperm-oil. Tallow is the fat of oxen and sheep, melted and purified. Lard, obtained from the hog, is one of the great products of the United States, 60,000 tons yearly being sent to Great Britain alone. Neatsfoot-oil is produced by boiling the feet of cattle. Sperm-oil and other fish-oils are obtained from different varieties of fish and sea animals, as the whale, seal, cod, shark or herring. The uses of the different oils are very numerous: as food and in the preparation of food, in soap-making, painting, machinery and in a thousand other ways they are of great importance. There is a large class of substances known as the essential or volatile oils which resemble the fats somewhat in their properties, particularly in not mixing with water. They make a grease-spot on paper which is not permanent. These are quite varied in composition, are more or less volatile and have strong and characteristic odors. Oils of turpentine, lemon and wintergreen are examples of a great number of these products which are largely used as solvents, for flavoring, in perfumery and in medicine. For mineral oils see Petroleum.

Ojib′ways or Chip′pewas, a large tribe of North American Indians belonging to the Algonquin family and living around Lakes Huron and Superior. They usually were at war with the Sioux and Iroquois, driving the Sioux from the sources of the Mississippi. They sided with the French, taking part in Pontiac’s War; and in the Revolutionary War they fought with the British. They came as far east as Lake Erie, but gave up all their lands in Ohio in 1817. They numbered about 18,000. Their lands have gradually been ceded to the United States, and most of the tribe are on lands west of the Mississippi. Their history has been written by two members of their tribe. See Peter Jones’s History of the Ojibway Indians.

Oka′, a river in Central Russia, the principal branch of the Volga. It flows northeast through the most fertile region of Russia, for 906 miles, to the Volga. It is navigable for part of the year only.

Okhotsk (ṓ-kōtsk′), Sea of, an arm of the Pacific, on the eastern coast of Siberia. It is 1,000 miles long and 600 broad, and contains several islands. It is seldom navigated.

Oklaho′ma (a Comanche Indian word signifying Land of the Fair God), until recently a territory (organized on May 2, 1890), with an area of 39,030 square miles and a population of 398,331 in 1900, but on Nov. 16, 1907, admitted as a state, with the adjoining Indian Territory (set apart for the Indians in 1832, organized on June 30, 1834, with an area of 31,400 square miles, and a population of 392,060 in 1900). The area of this 46th state is 70,430 square miles, with a population, according to the census of 1910, of 1,657,155. Oklahoma City is the capital, with a population (census 1910) of 64,205. The other important cities are Guthrie, Tulsa, Ardmore, El Reno, Enid, Lawton, Muskogee, Shawnee, South McAlester, Chickasha, Hobart, Stillwater and Vinita. The state, which lies in the South-central group, is bounded on the south by Texas, on the east by Arkansas and Missouri, on the north by Kansas and Colorado and on the west by New Mexico and Texas. The rise of Oklahoma to statehood within so brief a period as 18 years, when it was a vast cattle-range and Indian hunting-ground, is phenomenal, and bodes well for a still greater and more prosperous future.

Surface and Climate. With the exception of the Wichita Mountains in the south and the Chautauqua range near the center of the state, Oklahoma is a vast unbroken prairie plain, about 1,100 feet above the sea, the drainage being chiefly to the southeast by the Arkansas, Canadian and Red Rivers and their feeders. In the east and southeast there is some timber-land, but not much of the growth is merchantable. The soil for the most part and chiefly in the east is fertile, with a rich vegetable mold, the western and northwestern sections, where the rainfall is scant, being of sparse vegetation, and that mainly of sagebrush and cactus. The winter is short and mild, the temperature at normal being near freezing-point, though sometimes falling to 20° below zero, and rising in summer to 80° and even 115°. The average rainfall is 31.8 inches, a condition of climate and soil advantageous to an agricultural and stockraising state.

Natural Resources. It is claimed that the new dual state has not far from 250,000 farms (most of them cultivated by their individual owners), the extent and variety in the production of which are well-nigh a marvel, especially if it be borne in mind how comparatively recent is white settlement. So rich is the soil, so favorable are the normal climatic conditions, that wheat attains a high degree of perfection; while, besides its growth of cereals, including a phenomenal annual corn-crop and all the farm-products found in the other states, it raises cotton, hay, barley, potatoes, all kinds of vegetables, broom-corn, castor-beans, sorghum, peanuts and melons, in addition to a wide variety of fruits, including peaches, grapes, strawberries and many other small fruits. Of late years its annual corn crop has been not far short of 95,000,000 bushels and its wheat crop 25,000,000 bushels. Stockraising on its great areas of excellent pasturage is another large and profitable industry. The value to-day of its domestic animals, including horses, mules, dairy cows, and other cattle, together with sheep and swine, by last census, is not much below $153,000,000; while the yield of the mineral products approaches $35,000,000. Crude petroleum is produced to the extent of almost 52,029,000 barrels; while natural gas also is among the natural resources, together with large deposits of building-stone of excellent quality, including granite, marble, sandstone and limestone, besides areas, especially in the northeast, known to be rich in coal-seams. Its supply of timber is not large, though in a measure compensated for by its stores of petroleum and natural gas. Other minerals include salt, asphalt, gypsum, tripoli, phosphate, zinc, lead, copper and indications of gold. Of the oil and coal product a writer in The New York Times recently remarked that “Some of the richest oil-fields in America are in Oklahoma. The Glen Pool oil-district, south of Tulsa, between Red Fork and Mounds, has between 450 and 500 producing oil-wells, with a total capacity of 100,000 barrels a day. The first was sunk in December, 1905. Pipe-lines have been constructed for the transportation of this oil to the Texas seaboard and to the refineries at Whiting, Ind. More than $10,000,000 has been invested in tanks, pumping-stations and pump lines in Tulsa County. Eastern Oklahoma, which is not so uniformly even as the western portion of the state, produces more than 3,000,000 tons of coal a year, for which its mines receive about $6,000,000. The coal-field extends from the vicinity of Tulsa on the north to the Texas line on the south, and is more than 100 miles broad. The state contains about 150 coal-mines, employing about 10,000 operators.”

Manufactures. Oklahoma has more than 2,300 manufacturing plants, representing investments aggregating $38,873,000 and employing 13,143 wage-earners. These plants include flour-mills, oil-mills, cotton-gins, broom-factories, brick and tile works, salt-works, cement-factories, woodenware and carriage works. The two chief manufacturing centers are Oklahoma City and Guthrie, the former being an important milling seat.

Commerce and Transportation. The commerce of the chief towns is assuming large and rapidly increasing proportions. The freight into and out of Oklahoma City in 1912 amounted to about $4,890,000, while the value of the buildings erected that year was $885,246. The assessed taxable property of the state (1910) was $860,000,000; while its railway mileage is nearly 6,000 miles. The chief lines traversing the state embrace the Chicago, Rock Island and Pacific; Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fé; Missouri, Kansas and Texas; Missouri Pacific; Kansas City Southern; and Texarkana and Fort Smith roads. It has 20 railroads in all. The receipts and expenditures of the state are about $6,000,000 annually. It has 276 national banks, with an aggregate capital of about $13,000,000 and individual deposits amounting to nearly $52,000,000. The state banks (some 631 in number) have an aggregate capital of $9,666,000 and total deposits amounting to close upon $38,000,000.

Education. The school population in 1911 numbered about 557,000; some 400,000 were enrolled, while the average daily attendance was in the neighborhood of 260,000, the teachers numbering about 10,000, two thirds of them being women. The school expenditure in the year named was close upon $6,760,000; the state has a large invested fund for educational purposes, including the training of teachers, undertaken at normal schools and institutes in several localities. Higher education is represented by the University of Oklahoma at Norman, with 36 instructors and 600 students; the university's tuition is free to local residents; it also has a preparatory department, a college of arts and sciences, including (in addition to the ordinary collegiate subjects) courses in medicine and engineering; it also has a school of pharmacy and one of fine arts. Among other higher educational institutions are an Agricultural and Mechanical College at Stillwater, an Agricultural and Normal University for colored students at Langton, Kingfisher College (Congregational) and the Indian School (United States) at Chilocco. The state makes the usual provision for charitable and correctional institutions as well as for mental defectives and for criminals.

History and Government. The entire area came into the possession of the United States with the Louisiana Purchase of 1803. After the first third of the century had passed, most of the region was appropriated by Congress, though unorganized, for the use of the Indians (the chief tribes being the Sacs, Foxes, Creeks, Seminoles, Cherokee, Chickasaw, Choctaws and Cheyennes), while white men were restrained by law from settling upon its lands. As the region, in the development of the far west, was tracked by pioneers and land-boomers, the latter, disregarding its reservation as an Indian country, began to stake out claims and settle upon it. This the Indians naturally resisted, though unable themselves in the rapid changes passing over the country to adapt themselves to any form of civilized government and control. Matters drifted for a while, the national troops, meantime, being now and then called in to dislodge the “boomers”. Finally, in 1885, negotiations were opened with the Creeks and Seminoles with a view to open unoccupied lands to white settlement, and this was agreed to in 1889, when extraordinary scenes were enacted in the inrush of home-seekers, the incipient city of Oklahoma in one day gaining 5,000 white inhabitants. Transfers of land from Indian Territory and Texas were made about this time, and the region was erected into a territory, the Indians being removed to newly assigned reservations. The progress and development since have been phenomenal. This has justified the recent admission of the two territories as a state, under the name and combined area of Oklahoma.

Oklahoma City, Okla., the capital and the most populous city in the state, on the North Canadian River. It is served by the Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fé and Choctaw, Oklahoma and Gulf, the St. Louis and Santa Fé; Oklahoma and Western; Missouri, Kansas and Oklahoma; Texas and Oklahoma; Oklahoma Terminal; Oklahoma City and N. I.; and Rock Island and Pacific railroads. Water-power is derived from the rapids of the river. Industries include a cold-storage plant, packing-houses, flour-mills, cottongins, brickyards, grain elevators, box, cracker and soap and patent-medicine factories. It has a considerable trade in lumber and agricultural products. Oklahoma City has a fine public-school system as well as a parochial one. Among the institutions of learning are Epworth University, Sisters of Mercy College for girls and Oklahoma Military Institute. Besides these there are Carnegie Library, St. Anthony's Hospital, Sacred Heart Abbey and a number of good churches. Though founded only in 1889, the city has grown so rapidly that it already has a population of 64,205.

O′laf, Saint, one of the early Norwegian kings (1015-28), was born in 996. He distinguished himself by warlike expeditions on the coast of Normandy and of England. In 1015 he wrested the throne from Eric and Svend Jarl. His efforts to exterminate paganism by fire and sword cost the favor of his subjects, who offered their allegiance to Canute, king of Denmark, when he landed in Norway in 1028. Olaf fled to Russia, where he was given a band of 4,000 men, and, returning, attacked Canute, but was defeated and slain (1030 A. D.). His body was thought to possess miraculous powers, for which reason he was proclaimed the patron saint of Norway.

Old Curiosity Shop is a novel by Charles Dickens, published in 1840. The story centers around Little Nell, the grandchild of the keeper of the shop, and her weary quest for a safe retreat for her grandfather and herself. The grandfather, in an eager desire to secure a fortune for his grandchild, became addicted to gambling. Losing all his property and still crazed with the gambler's hope of winning, he borrows from Daniel Quilp, a malignant old dwarf, and thus comes into his power. Little Nell, realizing his position, takes him and a few personal belongings and secretly steals away, and with this double burden enters upon a wandering life which ends only with death. The story is one of a quiet, lovable, little girl surrounded with wild and grotesque though not impossible companions. Little Nell is said to have been a great favorite of the author. The story incidentally is a sermon on gambling.

Old′ham, a manufacturing city in Lancashire, England, nine miles from Manchester and 38 from Liverpool. It was a small village in 1760, its growth being due to its nearness to the Lancashire coal-fields and to its cotton manufactures. It has over 300 mills, and uses one fifth of all the cotton imported. It also makes hats, velvets and cords, and has large weaving-machine works, one of which employs 7,000 hands. There are public buildings, including a town hall, lyceum, school of science and arts and public baths and a fine park. Population 140,969.

Old Point Comfort or Fortress Monroe, Va. A government military reservation, at entrance of Hampton Roads and Chesapeake Bay, an important coast defense. Its garrison is 10 companies of coast artillery. The artillery school for officers, submarine coast defense school for officers and the master-gunners' school are located here. Its large hotel, accommodating 1,000 guests, faces Hampton Roads. It was

OLD SOUTH CHURCH

1379

OLIVfe

stroyed in 1862, as it was in the way of the batteries OB. Fortress Monroe, but has been rebuilt and is very popular. The watering-place is 16 miles north of Norfolk, Va.

Old South Church or Old South Meet-ing»House» Boston, stands at the corner of Milk and Washington Streets. It occupies the site of an original wooden church; but even the present building dates back to 1729. In this church many events of historic interest have occurred. Here Judge Sewall confessed and repented his part in the witchcraft agitations which marked 1692; Benjamin Franklin was baptized; revolutionary meetings were held; and the expedition to throw the taxed tea overboard in 1773 was assembled. Old South Meeting-House was used as a riding-school in 1775, and as a post-office after the fire of 1872; but it now is in the hands of a patriotic society and houses a collection of interesting historical relics.

O'lean'der, species of Nerium, a genus belonging to the dogbane family. There are but few species, which are natives from the Mediterranean region through southern Asia to Japan. The common oleander of cultivation is N, oleander, native to the Mediterranean region; while N. odorum, a sweet-scented form, comes from the East Indies. The plant is said to be more or less poisonous, especially the leaves. N. oleander rises to a height of eight or ten feet; the leaves are thick and leathery, evergreen; the plant blooms profusely, bearing a myriad of white or pink blossoms. In warm countries it is a favorite shrub, in cooler lands a favorite house-plant. It may readily be propagated by planting cuttings previously started in bottles of water.

O'le Bull. See BULL, OLE.

O'lean', N. Y., a city in Cattaraugus County at the confluence of the Allegheny River and Olean Creek; on the Erie; Pennsylvania; and Pittsburg Shawmut and Northern railroads, about 68 miles southeast of Buffalo. It is a distributing point for large quantities of petroleum, through a pipeline system, and has manufacturing industries of importance. It has good schools, public and private; Foreman library; and about 20 church edifices. It was settled in 1804, incorporated as a village in 1854 and chartered as a city in 1893. The government is vested in a mayor, elected for two years, and a council. The city owns and operates its own water works. Population

14.743-

O'leomar'garine, a substance made from tallow, resembling butter. It is also called butterine. The making of artificial butter was first suggested by a French chemist, and is quite an important industry. American factories produce large quantities, which are used in this country mostly for cooking purposes, but, shipped to Europe, take the place of butter among the poorer classes. Beef-suet is washed several times in lukewarm

water, minced fine in a cutting machine, and. melted by steam, when salt is added. The fat floats on top and is drawn off, purified, and, after it is cold, pressed to separate the butter-oil from the stearine. This butter-oil is the true oleomargarine. It is light yellow, and has a pleasant taste. A mixture made of two thirds of this oil, about one fifth milk, with a small amount of butter and some coloring matter, is churned together, the product resembling butter in taste and appearance and having all the elements found in butter made from cream. To prevent sale of it as cream-butter, Congress passed a law taxing the sale and requiring every package to be marked as oleomargarine or butterine. In 1906 the amount on which the government tax was paid exceeded 53,-000,000 pounds weight. The value of the annual product in the United States amounts to over $10,000,000. In England the sale of margarine has grown largely of recent years; in 1906 butter and margarine were consumed to the extent of 13.9 fbs. per head. Margarine is growing steadily in favor, since good margarine, which is a wholesome and excellent foodstuff, is always to be preferred to indifferent butter.

Ol'ga, St., a Russian princess and saint of the Greek church. She governed the country during the minority of her son. Going to Constantinople, she was baptized, taking the name of Helena, and labored with great zeal to spread her new faith throughout Russia. She died in 969, and is highly venerated by the Russian church. Her festival occurs on July 21.

Ol'iphant, Mrs. Margaret (Wilson), a Scottish novelist and writer, was born in Midlothian in 1828. Her first book, Passages in the Life of Mrs. Margaret Maitland, appeared in 1849, and at once attracted attention. Other works followed, some of them appearing in Blackwood's Magazine. Her reputation as a novelist was, however, first made by the publication of The Chronicles of Car-lingford. She was a prolific writer, having written over 30 novels and 10 or 12 other works. Among her works are The Makers of Florence; The Makers of Venice; The Makers of Modern Rome; Royal Edinburgh; Fran-cis of As sis si; Historical Sketches of the Reign of George II; Memoirs of the Count de Mont-alembert; and Literary History of England from 1790 to 1825. She died at London, June 2 5, 1897.

Ol'ive, species of Olea, a genus containing over 30 species, natives of the tropical and subtropical regions of the eastern hemisphere. The common commercial species are under cultivation for the well-known fruit. The olive has been cultivated from the earliest times, chiefly for the sake of the oil, which is obtained from the fruit by pressure , and is extensively used for pickles. The tree has been grown in California since the old mission-days, and is raised extensively in that state. It occasionally grows to a height of 40 feet, the grayish-green leaves being green always, and the fruit varies in color. The oil has a high food-value.

OLIVES

Ol′iver Twist, a favorite novel by Charles Dickens which takes its title from the hero of the story, was first published in Bentley's Miscellany in serial form during 1837-9. Oliver Twist had been brought up in a workhouse of the worst type, and only escaped from his subsequent apprenticeship to an undertaker to fall into the clutches of Fagin the Jew and his gang of pickpockets. But through all temptations and sordid influences of environment Oliver remained simple, pure and uncontaminated. Oliver Twist has far more of plot and tragic power than the Pickwick Papers which preceded it. Its pathos is even greater than its humor.

Olives, Mount of, also called Mount Olivet, lies east of Jerusalem, separated from it by the narrow Valley of Jehoshaphat. Its name came from a beautiful grove of olive-trees, which formerly grew on its western slope, but has now almost disappeared. The brook called Kedron flows through the valley, and by the bridge crossing it is the Garden of Gethsemane. The mount is divided into three summits, the highest 361 feet above Jerusalem and 2,725 above the sea, and on the central summit is the village of Olivet. The northern peak is supposed to be the place where the angels appeared to the disciples after the resurrection of Christ, and was the site of the Roman encampment at the destruction of Jerusalem. The central peak is pointed out as the mount from which Christ ascended after his resurrection, the place where he had wept over Jerusalem and had taught his disciples the Lord's Prayer. St. Helena built a church there, the site of which is now occupied by a later one, called the Church of the Ascension, and near it is a Mohammedan mosque.

Olm′sted, Frederick Law, an American landscape-gardener, was born at Hartford, Conn., April 26, 1822. He studied engineering at Yale, and followed farming and gardening for a few years. Becoming interested in landscape-gardening, he traveled on foot through England in 1850 and in 1855 through France, Italy and Germany, to study parks and ornamental grounds. He published Walks and Talks of a Farmer in England, A Journey in the Slave States, A Journey Through Texas and A Journey in the Back Country, after a tour through the south and west. He is best known as the superintendent, with Mr. Vaux, of the laying out of Central Park, New York, and of the grounds around the capitol at Washington. He has also designed parks and public works at Chicago, Buffalo, Brooklyn, Boston, Milwaukee and Montreal, and acted as commissioner of Yosemite Park. He planned the laying out of Jackson Park, Chicago, for the Columbian Exposition. He was appointed by Lincoln on the commission to inquire into the sanitary condition of the United States army, serving three years (1861-63). He died on Aug. 28, 1903.

RICHARD OLNEY

Ol′ney, Richard, an American jurist and statesman, was born at Oxford, Mass., Sept. 15, 1835. He graduated from Brown University in 1856, and afterward spent three years in the Harvard Law School. When admitted to the bar he began the practice of law at Boston and rapidly rose to fame. He took no active part in politics until, during the administration of President Cleveland, he was called to a place in his cabinet as attorney-general, afterward as secretary of state. On the return of the Republicans to power he resumed the practice of law at Boston, having won distinction in the settlement of various important matters of state upon which he was called to act during his career in the cabinet.

Olym′pia, Wash., capital of the state and county-seat of Thurston County, is on a peninsula at the southern end of Puget Sound, 65 miles from the Pacific. The Deschutes, which enters Puget Sound here, has a fall of 85 feet in 300 yards, which gives abundant water-power. A bridge, 2,030 feet long, formerly crossed the end of the sound. The Coast Mountains on the left and the Cascade Mountains on the right, with the sound in front, make fine scenery. There are flour mills, sawmills and shoe and soap factories, salmon canneries, machine shops etc. It has public and parochial schools, besides St. Amable Academy (R. C.), St. Peter's Hospital (R. C.) and the state library which contains 30,000 volumes. Population 6,782.

Olym′pic Games, the most famous and splendid national festival of the Greeks, celebrated once in five years in honor of Zeus, on the plain of Olympia. Olympia was a beautiful valley near the river Alpheus, and contained temples, monuments, altars and statues, connected with Greek art and religion. There were about 3,000 statues at the time of the elder Pliny (23-70 A. D.). The sacred grove was a level space, nearly square, being 600 feet long and about 580 feet broad. It looked toward the Ionian Sea, with the rivers Alpheus and Cladeus on its southern and western boundaries. It was well-wooded and crossed by a road called the Pompic Way, the route taken by all the processions. The games date back of 776 B. C., but in that year became a national festival, and the custom of reckoning time by Olympiads began. The contests were at first permitted only among the Greeks, but after the Romans conquered Greece they took part in the games, Tiberius and Nero appearing in the list of victors. Women were not allowed to be present, with the exception of the priestess of Demeter. The games were held at the first full moon of the summer solstice, about the last of June. While the games were in progress, all hostilities were stopped by proclamation of heralds through the country. The contestants went through 10 months' training in the gymnasium at Elis, and the judges, at first two but later 12, were instructed as long in their duties. The judges held office only one year. The contests were foot-races, wrestling, boxing, leaping, running and throwing the spear and the discus or quoits, with chariot and horse races. On the fifth day there were processions, sacrifices and banquets to the victors. The victors, each holding a palm-branch, were presented to the people, and while heralds proclaimed their names and their parents', they were crowned with garlands of wild olive twigs, cut from a sacred tree of the grove. Statues were erected to them; they had the place of honor on public occasions; were usually exempt from paying taxes; and at Athens were boarded at the expense of the state. Songs were sung in their praise, as 14 of Pindar's lyrics bear witness. The games were abolished by Emperor Theodosius in 394 A. D.

Olym′pus, Mount, a group of mountains in Turkey between Thessaly and Macedonia. The eastern side fronts the sea, and has deep precipices and ravines filled with forest trees. The highest peak is 9,790 feet high. In Greek mythology it was the residence of Zeus, whose palace was thought to stand on its summit.

O′maha, Neb., the largest city of Nebraska, capital of Douglas County, is on the Missouri which is crossed by a railroad bridge 2,750 feet long. The city is built on a plain 80 feet above the river, which rises gradually into bluffs. The business portion is on the level portion, while the bluffs are occupied by tasteful homes. The city hall, United States courthouse, Omaha Bee building, New York Life Insurance Company's building, Boyd's Theater, St. Joseph's Hospital, chamber of commerce, state asylum for the deaf, Creighton College, a medical college and over 100 churches are among its prominent buildings. The Bee is the most important newspaper published between San Francisco and Chicago. Omaha ranks with Chicago and Kansas City as a live-stock market, having immense stockyards, which cover over 200 acres, and large beef and pork-packing establishments, being the third city in the United States in the value of its pork-products. The manufactures include linseed-oil, boilers, safes, bags, soap and beer. The largest silver-smelting works in the world, using one fourth of the silver ore mined in the United States, are at Omaha. The military department of the Platte, covering 82½ acres, with fine barracks, is near the city. The public schools are maintained at an annual cost of $1,500,000; the buildings consist of 49 grade schools and one high school; besides, the city has a public library, Creighton College two, the Y. M. C. A. one (and six other libraries belong to fraternal societies) and a fine art gallery. Fourteen trunk-lines enter the city, and there are two magnificent stations. Omaha was founded in 1854, and rapidly became one of the leading western cities. Population 124,096.

Omahas, a tribe of American Indians, of the Dakotah family, settled in northern Nebraska. They were found by Marquette (1673), by Carver (1766) and by Lewis and Clark (1805). They were constantly at war with the Sioux, but since 1855 have been at peace and have improved rapidly. They cultivate the ground, and have churches and schools. Their present number does not exceed 1,200.

O′mar I, Abu Hafsah Ibn ul Khattab, the second caliph of the Mussulmans, was born about 581 A. D. Although he was at first bitterly opposed to Mohammed, he suddenly gave his adherence to the cause of the prophet and became a chief supporter of his creed and claims. He succeeded Abu-bekir in 634 A. D. He declined the title of Caliph or successor, as too exalted; and chose rather to be called Emir or Commander. It was through his command the Hejira (Flight) was adopted as the point from which the followers of Mohammed should date their years. It was by his genius that the Arabian empire was founded. Under his irresistible advance Syria and Palestine were conquered, and he built the Mosque of Omar which still stands central in Jerusalem. He subdued Egypt and Persia, and brought for the first time all the Arabian tribes under one creed and authority. An act of injustice, not usual with him, it should be said, incurred the resentment of a Persian slave, and he was assassinated in 644. He was buried near Mohammed.

Omar Khayyam (khī̇-yäm′), a Persian poet and astronomer, was born at Nishapur about the middle of the 11th century. Khayyam is his poetical name, and was taken from his father’s business as a tent-maker. He was educated under one of the great Persian teachers and offered a place at court, but refused and was given a pension instead. He reconstructed the calendar, making it, as Gibbon says, “very much superior to the Julian, approaching in accuracy to the Gregorian style.” He wrote mathematical treatises in Arabic, one on algebra, which has been translated into French. He was better known as an astronomer than as a poet until 1859, when Edward Fitzgerald, published a translation of his Rubáiyát or quatrains, which gave him a place among the true poets, though the translation is deemed much finer than the original. His astronomical work brought on him the suspicion of heresy, which his poem did not remove, and to allay the feeling against him he made a pilgrimage to Mecca. He died at Nishapur in 1122. See Letters and Literary Remains of Fitzgerald, Vol. III.; Rubáiyát.

O’Mea′ra, The Reverend Thomas Robert, LL.D., principal of Wycliffe College, Toronto, and canon of St. Alban’s cathedral, was born at Georgetown, Ontario, Oct. 16th, 1864. He was educated at the public school and the collegiate institute at Port Hope, from which he went to the University of Toronto and Wycliffe College, graduating in 1887. He was ordained a deacon in July of 1887 and a priest in December of 1888. For a year he was curate of St. Philip’s, Toronto, but in 1889 he accepted the assistant-rectorship of Trinity Church, Toronto, and the financial secretaryship of Wycliffe College. Principal O’Meara held this position until 1903, when he accepted the chair of practical theology which he still holds. In 1904 he was appointed rector of Trinity Church, Toronto. In 1906 he resigned to accept the principalship of Wycliffe College. Principal O’Meara has for many years been secretary of the Canadian Church Missionary Society, of which he was elected a life governor three years ago. He has also been president of the Church of England Deaconess and Missionary Training-House for years. He also is vice-president of the Upper Canada Bible-Society.

Om′nibus Bill, The, a term applied to a bill reported on April 17th, 1850, by a committee of the Federal Senate of the United States headed by Henry Clay, because of its all-comprehensive nature. The bill consisted of thirty-nine sections, and provided for the admission of California with her free constitution, territorial government in New Mexico and Utah, without express restriction upon slavery; a territorial boundary line between Texas and New Mexico in favor of the former; a more efficient fugitive slave-law; and denial to Congress of power to interfere with slave-trade between slave-states. After long discussion the bill was broken up and each measure covered by a separate bill. The term is now commonly applied to all single legislative acts in which are incorporated a number of loosely connected or wholly disconnected measures. Such bills used to be passed by state legislatures with considerable frequency, but in later years provisions have found their way into constitutions requiring that single statutes shall deal with but one main subject which shall be clearly indicated in the title.

One′ga, Lake, in the north of Russia, northeast of Lake Ladoga and, after it, the largest in Europe. It is 146 miles long and 50 wide, covering 3,764 square miles. It has but one outlet, the Svir, flowing into Lake Ladoga. There are numerous islands and bays and abundance of fish. It is closed by ice for 156 days in the year, but has a large traffic on its waters at other times. A ship-canal, 145 miles long, to connect it with the White Sea, is planned, the surveys being finished in 1890.

Onei′da, Lake, one of the numerous lakes of central New York. It is 23 miles long and about 5 wide, and flows through the Oneida into Oswego River. It lies 11 miles northeast of Syracuse.

On′ion, a plant with a bulbous root, belonging to the lily family, is a valuable table vegetable which has been cultivated from the most ancient times. Its origin is unknown; but the plant may have come from northeastern Africa or western Asia, for it is mentioned in the writings of the ancient Egyptians. For the cultivation of onions the soil should be as loose as possible. Because a warm temperature is unnecessary, the onion is grown as a winter crop, especially in the southern part of the United States. It is usual to grow onions at the first in hot-beds and to plant them out when they have grown to about four inches. Otherwise, it is necessary to weed and thin them carefully when young. American white onions are milder and more popular than the yellow or the red varieties. Imported onions, as the Bermuda and the Spanish, are even better flavored; and these varieties are now extensively cultivated in the warmer parts of the United States. The potato-onion is a strongly flavored species, almost like garlic, and perennial. Onions are

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Ontario, Can.

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Ontario, Can.

ONTARIO AGRICULT. COLLEGE

1385

OPERA

separated again when the Dominion was formed in 1867, It played an active part in the Anglo-American War of 1812. It developed responsible government and English institutions. It rose in 1837, not against England, but against colonial grievances. It suffered from Fenian outrages in 1866. It prospered greatly during 1854-66. It has grown phenomenally since 1883. Its municipal governments closely approach civic perfection.

Ontario Agricultural College, Quelph, Can., was established in 1874. Its experimental farm has nearly 1000 acres. Dr. James Mills became president in 1879 and continued such until 1904, being succeeded by George C. Cr@©lman. The primary aim is to train young men for practical farming. There are special laboratories for chemistry, biology and physics. The library building cost $45,000. Sir William C, Macdonald of Montreal for instruction in home-science has erected buildings at a cost of $175,000 and presented them to the province. There are 23 teachers. The students each year average over 700. The college has graduated nearly 200 students, and sent many to teach in other colleges. It is admittedly one of the best equipped and most successful colleges of the kind in the world. As regards advanced examinations it is affiliated with the University of Toronto.

Ontario, Lake, one of the five Great Lakes of North America. It lies between Ontario and New York state, and has an elevation of 250 feet above the sea. It is the smallest of the group, covering 7,240 square miles and being 190 miles long and 55 wide. It forms the connection between Niagara River and the St. Lawrence. The level of its waters varies about three and a half feet at regular periods of from four to seven years, which, it is thought, may be due to an underground river. Welland Canal connects it with Lake Erie, Oswego Canal with Erie Canal and Hudson River, and Rideau Canal with Ottawa. It is subject to storms, the agitation of its waters by which may account for its seldom freezing, except along the shore.

O'nyx. See MARBLE.

Oogonium (o'o-gd'ni-um) (in plants), the female organ in thallophytes. It consists usually of a single cell, which produces a solitary egg, the oosphere. It may be a special cell set apart for this purpose from its beginning; or it may be an ordinary nutritive cell, which later becomes modified into an egg-producing cell. See THALLOPHYTES.

Oosphere (o'o-sfer), the general name for the female cell or egg in plants. See EGG.

O'ospore (in plants), the general name for the spore which results from the fertilisation of an egg by a sperm. The oospore is sometimes called a fertilized egg, and m plants which have a distinct alternation

of generations the o5spore in germination always produces the sporophyte.

O'pal is a mineral, something like quartz, composed mainly of silica and water. It is never found in crystals, and is very easily broken. There are many kinds, so nearly resembling each other as to be with difficulty distinguished. The finest kind, known as precious, noble or oriental opal, is partially transparent and of a bluish or yellowish white, with a beautiful play of brilliant colors produced by small fissures which refract the light. It is never cut in facets, as diamonds are, because its play of colors is better on a convex surface. It is used in jewelry. The finest opals are brought from Hungary. Opal is also found in Saxony and in South America. The common opal is white, yellow, green, red or brown, but without any play of colors. It is not at all rare, occurring in veins and holes in rocks.

Op'era is a drama which is sung, accompanied by a full orchestra or by a chorus of musical instruments. It makes use of the aria or song, duets, trios, the recitative or declamation, instrumental interludes or whatever the situation requires. The introduction or opening is called an overture. There are three chief classes or schools, the Italian, the German and the French. The Italian opera ^is the earliest, dating as earty as 1600, and is noted for melody^ Scarlatti (1659-1725) may be considered its founder. The most famous modern Italian composer is Rossini, his Barber of Seville and William Tell both retaining a place on the modern stage. Bellini, Donizetti, and Verdi are other well-known composers of this school.

The early opera in Germany was Italian, Dresden and Vienna being the centers. The national school was founded at Hamburg by Keyser, who wrote more than 100 operas (i 694-1734). Mozart's first work was Italian in form, though surpassing the Italians in their own field; but his Magic Flute was the first national romantic opera. Beethoven composed but one opera, Fidelio, while Weber used the national folklore in Der Freischutz (Free Archer) with great effect. Melodrama originated in Germany. The singer recites his part in a speaking voice, while the music of the orchestra seeks to give the meaning of the scene to the audience.

French grand opera was founded by Sully, a Florentine, and reformed by Gltick, the German composer, while Cherubini, Rossini, Meyerbeer and Wagner were foreigners who aided in its development. The French school paid particular attention to rhetoric, and the use of the recitative or recitation has always been prominent. Italian opera became the fashion in London from the time of Hdndel, and was introduced into America in 1825. See Memoirs of the Opera by Hogarth and Essays on Modern Opera by Edwards.

OPEKA-GLASS

1386

OPIUM

0pera=Glass, an instrument for making distant objects appear brighter and more distinct. Am ordinary opera-glass is essentially two telescopes, of the type employed by Galileo, so mounted in one frame as to produce two images of the same size, one for each eye. The principle of the opera-glass is that of the astronomical telescope, except that the latter uses a converging eyepiece, while in the opera-glass a diverging eyepiece is used. The reason for this difference is twofold: The diverging eyepiece gives an upright image; and the total length of the opera-glass is the difference between the focal lengths of the object lens and the eye lens. This makes the opera-glass short, so that it can be easily carried in the pocket. If a converging eyepiece were used, the distance between the objective and the eye lens would have to be equivalent to the SUM of their focal lengths, which would make

FIG. I.

the instrument unwieldy. The optical behavior of the opera-glass will be clear from the accompanying figure, where Bt B8 indicates the object glass, through which pass three rays from a very distant object P. The pupil of the eye is indicated by p p, and the image of P is seen erect in the direction indicated by the three rays Pt. The principal focus of either lens falls at some point within the eye. The angle which the image subtends at the eye is much greater than that under which the object is seen with the naked eye. Zeiss of Jena has recently introduced an enormous improvement into the ordinary opera-glass, by using

(instead of two Galilean telescopes) a pair of astronomical telescopes. But he avoids the difficulty of extreme length, mentioned above, by placing a pair of prisms between the two lenses, such as is shown in the accompanying figure. The path of the ray between the two lenses is thus doubled upon itself, securing a short length for the instrument and at the same time giving an erect image and a large, clear field. These prisms allow him also to place the two objectives a foot or so apart, while the eye lenses ar© at a distance suited to the eyes. Equipped with such a glass, a field officer can stand behind a tree in safety while he is watching

the operations of the enemy. It need hardly be added that the armies and navies of all civilized countries are now furnished with these glasses.

Ophir (d'fer), a place mentioned in the BibR, from which the navy of Solomon brought gold, precious stones and sandal-wood. The voyage took three years. It was on the eastern coast of Africa, in Arabia or in India, but in which is doubtful. Jose-phus places it on the peninsula of Malakka.

O'pium is the dried juice of the unripe seed-vessels of a kind of poppy. The poppy is cultivated in India, Persia, China, Turkey and Egypt. It requires a very rich soil, and irrigation is often used as an aid to cultivation. The main opium district in India is a large tract on the Ganges, about 600 miles long and 200 broad. In India the seed is sown in November, the plant blossoms in January or later, and in three or four weeks after, when the poppy heads or capsules are about as large as a hen's egg, the field is ready for work. The collector takes a small instrument made of four little knives tied together, looking like the teeth of a comb, and with this cuts or scratches the poppy heads. This is done in the afternoon, and the next morning a milky sap can be collected from the heads by scraping with a kind of scoop into an earthen vessel. The vessel is kept turned on its side so that any watery fluid may drain out, and as the juice dries it is turned often, so that it will dry equally. It takes three or four weeks before it is thick enough to be used in the factories. It is then thrown into great vats in the factories and kneaded, and made into balls or cakes, which are dried and packed in chests for the market. Opium has a bitter taste and a peculiar, heavy odor. It is poisonous, but makes a. most valuable medicine, in which form it is used to allay pain and produce sleep. The habitual use of the drug is known as opium-eating or the opium habit, and is made use of to relieve pain or sleeplessness, wnen it soon becomes a habit most difficult to overcome. The amount usually taken is about three grains a day, though De Quincey (himself a slave to the habit) say% that he used sometimes 8,000 drops of laudanum (a form of opium) daily. It acts as a stimulant, followed by depression aiid nervousness, requiring a fresh dosf* to remove them. Another way in which it is used is in smoking, a practice most Common in China and in India. The opium prepared for smoking is called chandu, and is a watery extract about twice as strong as the drug. A piece of opium as large as a pea is placed in a small cup at this end of a pipe and lighted, and the smoks inhaled. The opium is distilled by the process, and there is very little morphine in the smoke. There are said to be a million opium smokers in the United States. Excessive use of it wrecks the constitutioa

FIG. 2

OPORTO

1387

ORACLE

and seems to destroy also the moral faculties. For the opium wars see CHINA. See Opium and the Opium Appetite by Calkin and Opium Smoking in America and China.

Oporto (o-por'tdo), the second city in Portugal, is situated on the Douro, three miles from the Atlantic. The city climbs the steep banks of the river, its houses, gayly painted, making a bright picture set off from the pine-covered mountains behind it. On one of the crags overlooking the river is a crystal palace surrounded with gardens. The old cathedral was built by Henry the Navigator; the Gothic church was founded in 559; and the former monasteries are used, one as a citadel, one as an exchange and one as barracks. There are a medical school (246 students), observatory, a fine art academy (133 students), library of 250,000 volumes and two picture galleries. The railroad to Lisbon crosses the river a little above the city on one of the finest arch bridges built. The manufactures are cloth, silk, hats, porcelain, ribbons, tobacco, soap and metal casting, distilling, cork-cutting and sugar-refining. It is the chief seat of the export trade in port wine, and in the vicinity, in 1900, were 15 cottonmills. Oporto was the stronghold of the Christians in the peninsula against the attacks of the Moors. The people in 1828 opposed the usurper, Miguel, who executed many of them; but they supported Pedro of Brazil, and withstood the besiegers thirteen months. Population 167,955.

Opos'sum, animal representing the mar-SUpials or pouched animals in the New

OPOSSUM

World. There are some 16 species, varying in size from a cat down to a mouse. Some are provided with pouches on the under side of the body in which the young are reared, and others have no sign of a pouch. In those forms without a pouch the young, when fully developed, are frequently carried on the back, with their tails twined round that of the mother. The Virginia opossum is common from the central United States to Brazil. It is one of the largest members of the group, being about the size of a cat. The

hair is long and coarse; black and white, giving the appearance of grayish-white, underneath the fur white and woolly; nose and lips white; ears erect, hairless, black tipped with white; tail prehensile, flesh-colored, almost bare. In general appearance the animal reminds one somewhat of a little pig. The Virginia opossum brings forth her young when they are very small, only about half an inch long; as soon as one is born the mother places it in her well-developed pouch, where it and its brothers and sisters are kept several weeks — sometimes there are a dozen to carry about and provide with milk. The little ones sleep and eat and grow. Perhaps by the time they are the size of rats and able to ride on her back there will be a second brood in the pouch. There are two or three litters a year. As great eaters, opossums may again be likened to the pig; they eat everything and anything: insects, wild fruit and berries, varied with roots, reptiles, crayfish, eggs, small rats and mice, with additions of poultry, corn, sweet potatoes and other farm-yard delicacies. As enemies of the destructive cotton-rat they are highly valued. They hunt mainly by night, sleep by day, live in trees. They are expert climbers; in going up a tree they use tail and hand-shaped feet very much as does a monkey. They dislike cold, seldom come forth when snow is on the ground, remaining in their dens for*^armth and comfort, having stored away fat for this time of need. The opossum's habit of feigning death when frightened or slightly injured is well-known, and in this he is a consummate actor — lies stretched out mo«-tionless, breathless, nose colorless, white lips apart and the teeth gleaming stark, death* like. See Stone and Cram! American Ani* mals; Hornaday: American Natural History.

Op'tics. See LIGHT, TELESCOPE, CAMERA, EYE, OPERA-GLASS, MICROSCOPE, PHYSICS.

Or'acle, in ancient times a revelation by some god in answer to questions, and also the place where the revelations were given. The revelations were usually made by the mouths of priests or priestesses, and sometimes by other signs. At Dodona the oracle answered by the motion of leaves or the murmuring of the waters of a fountain, and the oracle of Ammon responded by the shaking of the statue of the god. The Egyptian temples were nearly all oracles, and there were oracles among the Babylonians and Phoenicians. The most famous oracle of the Greeks was the one at Delphi. The inquirers offered sacrifices, walked around the oracle with laurel crowns on their heads, and inscribed their questions on leaden tablets, many of which have been discovered. The answer was accepted as final and having authority, and usually was just and reasonable. Other oracles were at Ismenus, Delos and Olympia. See Greek Oracles by P. W. H. Myers and Religious Antiquities by SohO-manns (translated).

ORAN

1388

ORANGEMEN

Oran (o-ranf}, a city in Algeria, is situated on the Gulf of Oran, 260 miles southwest of Algiers. The harbor is protected by moles, built in 1880. The city lies at the foot of a hill, defended by forts, and has two citadels. There are a Roman Catholic cathedral, a Mohammedan mosque, a military hospital, a college and a seminary. The principal exports are alfa, iron-ore and grain. The city was founded by the Moors, and in the isth century was very prosperous. It was famed for cloth, arms and fine public buildings. In 1509 the Spaniards, after taking it, made a penal settlement of it. Captured by the Turks in 1708, it was retaken by the Spaniards in 1732, who abandoned it in 1790 after it was almost destroyed by an earthquake. The French took possession in 1831. Population 85,801. Oran is also a department in Algeria, area 44,616 square miles, with a population, embracing both the military and the civil territory, of 1,122,358.

Or'ange, the fruit of Gurus aurantium and its varieties. To the same genus belong the

ORANGE

limes, citrons, grape-fruits etc. All the species of the genus are natives of tropical and subtropical Asia, but are now extensively cultivated throughout the warmer regions of the world. In the United States orange cultivation centers in Florida, the delta region of the Mississippi and in California. Portions of Texas, New Mexico and Arizona are well-adat>ted for commercial cultivation.

The orange was introduced into this country by the early Spanish explorers, here increased and formed wild groves of large extent. It is a long-lived tree, bears to a great age, is evergreen, and its glossy leaves are set off by snowy blossoms of exceeding fragrance. Blossom, green and ripe fruit may be seen at one time on the same tree. In cultivation it rarely exceeds 30 feet in height, and is a low-branching tree. It is attacked by various diseases, rot, blight and mould, and requires careful cultivation and watching. Scale insects have worked much damage to the orange crop. The red scale is kept in check by fumigating and by spraying. The white or fluted scale, formerly very destructive in California, has been practically vanquished by the Australian ladybird. Oranges are usually cut by hand and kept a few days before packing. There are numerous cultivated forms, the so-called navel oranges being an accidental variation. Among the commoner forms are the common sweet orange, a native of India, among whose most prized cultural forms are the Washington navel and Riverside navel; and the mandarin or kid-glove orange, a native of China, various cultivated forms being known as mandarins and tangerines.

Orange, N. J., a city of Essex County, 12 miles west of New York. The name also includes parts of the townships of East, West and South Orange, all suburbs of New York, often called the Oranges. The region is laid out in beautiful parks, with elegant, homes, rising above each other, ending in a broad crest on the top of Orange Mountain, 650 feet in height. Llewellyn Park (50 acres) is on the eastern slope of the mountain in West Orange and contains many fine residences. Near it is the Edison laboratory. The chief manufacturing establishments are hat factories and printing plants. Among its prominent buildings are Music Hall, Masonic Temple, the Metropolitan and Decker buildings, Orange Memorial Hospital and the House of the Good Shepherd. The city has excellent public and parochial schools, a training school for nurses, a city library and Stickley Memorial Library. At South Orange are Seton Hall (R. C.) for men and boys and a theological seminary. Population 29,630.

Orangemen, an association of Scotch-Irish Protestants founded in 1795 in the north of Ireland for the purpose of sustaining the Protestant religion and upholding the authority of the sovereign and the laws of the United Kingdom. It originated and chiefly flourishes in Ulster, but is found in other parts of the United Kingdom, in the British colonies and in the United States. The association derives its name from William III, Prince of Orari'ge. It declined after 1813, but revived in 1827. It was dissolved by the House of Commons as a secret order in 1830, but revived in 1845. I*1 October, 1857, the lord-chancellor of Ireland

ORANGE RIVER

1389

ORATORIO

ordered that justices of the peace should not belong to Orange Clubs, July ist and i2th are celebrated by Orangemen as anniversaries of the ba ttles of the Boyne and Anghrum. ^

Orange River, the largest stream in South Africa, flowing west into the Atlantic Ocean. It is 1,000 miles long, but is navigable only in the rainy season, and its mouth is obstructed by a bar.

Orange River Colony. This British possession in South Africa, after having existed for 46 years as an independent republic under the name of the Orange Free State, was, after military occupation by the British forces in consequence of the Boer War, annexed by proclamation on May 4, 1900, and is now known as Orange River Colony. The government is in the hands of a governor for the Transvaal and Orange River Colonies, with a lieutenant-governor for the latter, assisted by an appointive executive council and a legislative council of 18, ten official and eight unofficial, all nominated by the crown, It is intended to restore responsible government by degrees. The area of the colony is 50,392 square miles, the total population being, in 1908, natives included, 435,-ooo. Of this number, about 100,000 were white, who chiefly engaged in agriculture and in raising sheep, cattle, horses, goats, ostriches. This population is chiefly of Dutch origin, The colony was founded by the Boers who trekked from Cape Colony in and after 1836, and was declared independent in 1854. It lies between Vaal and Orange Rivers, on a plain rising from 3,000 to 5,000 feet, with bluffs or slopes toward the rivers that border it, and dotted with kopjes or flat-topped hills. The prevailing religion is that of the Dutch Reformed church; while the Roman Dutch law has hitherto been in use. The Dutch Reformed church still preponderates in numbers, but there has been a great gain among other Protestant bodies and Roman Catholics since 1900, the aid formerly given by the Free State government to the first named body having been discontinued. Education is going steadily forward, fees having been entirely done away with in all elementary schools. A college, normal school, high school and many primary schools have been established, and education is compulsory, but little is being done among the blacks. Bloemfontein is the capital, with a present population of 38,-ooo. The undulating plains of the interior afford excellent grazing. The colony is rich in coal-mines; while in and on the borders are valuable diamond mines, the yield from which, as well as of garnets and other precious stones, has been phenomenally large. Some gold has been found. Rubies, sapphires, emeralds and other precious stones are reported from Hope Valley. There is now a government department of mines. The imports are chiefly wearing apparel, cottons, blankets, food and drink, woodenware

and hardware. The exports are largely wool and diamonds, most of them going to Cape Colony. The colony belongs to the South African customs-union. The Free State kept no statistics regarding mining, A railway, constructed by the Cape government, connects Orange River (at Norval's Point) with the capital as well as with the Transvaal, lying north of it. The length of the railway lines in the colony is about 900 miles. There are 2,143 miles of telegraph lines, giving communication with Cape Colony, Natal, Transvaal and Basutoland. See TRANSVAAL, CAPE COLONY and BOER WAR.

Orang=Utan or Orang-Outang (o-r&ngf oo-tang'), one of the higher apes, found in the swampy forests of Borneo and Sumatra. With the chimpanzee and the gorilla, it approaches closely to man in structure. A full-grown male reaches a height of four feet and four inches, but the outstretched arms cover seven feet eight inches. The body is bulky and covered with long, red-

ORANG-OUTANG

dish-brown hair. The legs are short, but the arms are so long as to reach the ankles when the animal is erect, and, in walking the knuckles are placed on the ground. Orangutans, however, are awkward on the ground and prefer the trees,, where they can travel five or six miles an hour, without special effort, by swinging along on the branches, which they grasp mainly with their hands. They feed on fruits and succulent shoots, being strictly vegetarian in their diet. They get most of their food on the trees, but go to the ground for water. They live in pairs. As a rule they are peaceable, but when disturbed are reputed fierce. They retire to rest at sundown in nests of broken boughs 20 or 30 feet above ground. In captivity they are not so active and intelligent as the chimpanzee. See APE.

Or'ato'rio, a sacred story set to music and accompanied, as in the opera, with a chorus and orchestra or band of musical instruments, but without the use of scenery or costumes or acting. Its nam« is derived from the oratory of the Church of Santa Maria

ORCHARDSON

1390

ORD

Hagpore in Rome, where, from 15 71 to 1594, l&asaoal performances of this class were first flttHE&og&d. The oratorio was produced in Kcsxie in 1600, the same year in which the first opera was given in Florence. The first development of the oratorio had the passion of Christ for its subject^ and the greatest passion music is the St. Matthew, written for service on Good Fridayy by Sebastian Bach in 1729. The next form was the epic? used by Htfndel in 15 grand oratorios, the greatest of w'Mch are Israel in Egypt and the Messiah, by Haydn in his Creation and by Mendelssohn in Elijah. The modern oratorio uses more of the dramatic element, and inclines to the form of a cantata, of which Liszt's St Elisabeth and Schumann's Paradise and the Peri are fine examples. See Standard Oratorios by Upton.

Or'chardson, William Quiller, R. A., a Scotch painter, was born in 1835, at Edinburgh, where he studied art. He is considered to belong to the first rank of genre painters, that is, a class of paintings whose subjects are taken from everyday life. His pictures, many of the later of which are fashionable interiors and portraits are very popular and exquisitely finished. Among the best known are The Challenge, Napoleon on the Bellerophon, The Bill of Sale, Hard Hit, After, The Salon of Madame Recamier, The Rift within the Lute, Her Mother's Voice and The Young Duke.

Orchids (dr'ktds'), species of a great mono-uotyledonous family, the Orchidacecz, con-

omcmD

taining over 6,000 species. Their greatest display is in the tropics, where many of them are brilliantly colored epiphytes. There ar@ many beautiful species, however, in the temperate regions, chiefly in bogs. The flowers are very much modified, always having a conspicuous spur, at the bottom of which nectar is secreted. Orchids are very highly

LADY-SLIPPER

specialized in reference to pollination by insects. Each kind of orchid has its own kind of insect, and all of the elaboration of the flower is connected with this fact. In greenhouses orchids are among the most prized of plants, on account of the showy colors and the strange forms of the flowers, the most conspicuous being the epiphytes from the tropical forests. Among the best known forms are the common lady-slippers or moccasin flowers (Cypripedium), in which the spur is repla^d by a conspicuous sac, the so-called slipper or moccasin. (See LADY'S SLIPPER.) Another of our beautiful native orchids is the white-fringed orchis, found in swamp and cranberry marsh in New Jersey and north and westward to Minnesota. The leaves are alternate, lanceolate; the flowers bloom in July, are milk-white, lower lip heavily fringed, grow in numbers on a short spike. The yellow-fringed orchis closely resembles the preceding but is taller, has bloom of a rich orange. The large purple-fringed orchis is a queenly flower, found in meadows and rich woods from Nova Scotia and New England to North Carolina and Michigan. The flowers, June to August, are of violet hue, large and fragrant, the lip often an inch and a half long, the cluster in dense racemes. In the evergreen woods of the north one may in July find the cool-looking green and white bloom of the great green orchis? flowers clustered loosely on a long spike? the two large leaves of the plant lying flat on the ground. See Watson: Orchids. Ord, Edward Otho Cresap, an American general, was born in Cumberland, Md., Oct, 18, 1818. He served in the Seminole War in Florida and on the frontiers until the beginning of the Civil War, when he became brigadier-general of volunteers and was given command of the Pennsylvania reserves, and gained the battle of Dranesville (December, 1861). In May, 1862, as major-general of volunteers, he was given a command in the department of the Mississippi, and took part in the battle of Iuka and the capture of Vicksburg. In 1865 he was in command of the army of the James and the department of Virginia, and was in the battles that ended the war. After the war he became a brigadier-general in the regular army, had command of various departments, and retired in 1881 with the rank of major-general. He died at Havana, Cuba, July 22, 1883.

Or′dinance of 1787, The, was an act of Congress in July, 1787, for the administration of the affairs of the great Northwest Territory of the United States. The ordinance contained this oft-quoted provision: “Religion, morality and knowledge being necessary to good government and the happiness of mankind, schools and the means of education shall forever be encouraged.” The ordinance contained six articles which were expressly stated to be of the nature of a contract between the people of the states already existing and the people of the Northwest Territory. It guaranteed freedom of worship and prohibited slavery in the lands granted to the Ohio Company; and it looked clearly forward to the time when these lands should be organized under permanent constitutions and governments.

Or′egon. Oregon is in the northwestern part of the United States between the 42nd and 46th parallels of latitude. It is bounded on the north by Washington, on the east by Idaho, on the south by Nevada and California and on the west by the Pacific Ocean. Only six states exceed Oregon in area. It is 285 miles from north to south and 360 from east to west. Population, 672,765.

Physical Features. Two mountain ranges, the Coast Range and the Cascade, run parallel with the coast. West of the Coast Range lies a comparatively level country, varying in width from 10 to 30 miles. This is cut into many little valleys by divides extending westerly from the mountains. Notable among these valleys are the Nehalem, the Yaquina, the Alsea, the Siuslaw, the Umpqua, the Coos Bay country and Rogue River Valley. East of the Coast Range or between the Coast and Cascade Ranges lies Willamette Valley. This valley is drained by a river of the same name, which rises in a divide that joins the two great ranges about 100 miles from the southern border of the state and flows north to the Columbia. The valley averages about 50 miles in breadth. Its elevation is low, and the soil is fertile. South of this divide the country is divided by Umpqua and Rogue Rivers, which flow through passes of the Coast Range to the Pacific. All of the country west of the Cascades is known as Western Oregon, all east of it as Eastern Oregon. The elevation of Eastern Oregon varies from 2,000 to 5,000 feet above the sea. The Blue Mountains, about the center of the state, extend in a northeasterly direction into Washington. In Eastern Oregon the rivers flow towards the north. In the southern part are a number of large lakes. Western Oregon is a country of valleys with many streams of water flowing through them. Eastern Oregon is known as a plateau country, its streams are far apart, but frequent enough to make irrigation practicable.

Climate. As the state is divided into two great parts in regard to surface, so it is in regard to climate. Eastern Oregon has hot and dry summers, pleasant autumns, cool, clear weather with occasional showers until December; then cold winters, often with a great deal of snow, cold until late in the spring. Western Oregon has delightfully cool summers, cool nights even after the warmest days, and the winters are never severe. During the winter considerable rain falls, but the total rainfall does not exceed an average of 46 inches a year. Many winters pass without snow, many summers without an electrical storm. Tornadoes and hurricanes are unknown, but heavy rainstorms amounting to cloudbursts are no uncommon thing in Eastern Oregon.

Resources. The resources are just beginning to be developed. For example, in 1902 the annual cut of the lumber mills was about 600,000,000 feet, for 1910 the cut was 2,084,000,000 feet, yet the immense forests which extend from the seashore to the summit of the Coast Range, down the eastern slope and from the lowest foothills on the western coast of the Cascades to the snowline seem scarcely to have been touched by the sawyer. Of the trees comprising these forests, the most important are fir, pine, cedar, hemlock, tamarack, myrtle, ash, maple and laurel. Many important mineral products are found. Gold is mined extensively, the most important mines being in Baker County, Eastern Oregon, and Lane County, Western Oregon. Large fields of sienna are being opened in Western Oregon. Coal, iron and a good quality of building-stone are found in abundant quantities throughout the state.

Agriculture. The three great agricultural products are wheat, hops and dairy products. The largest wheat-farms are in the northern part of Eastern Oregon, the largest dairy-farms are along the coast, and the hop-farms are in Willamette Valley, which also has wheat and dairy farms. Oregon produces two fifths of the entire hop crop of North America. Other important products are oats, barley, flax and hay. Clover, cheat, timothy, vetch and alfalfa are grown. Alfalfa produces three crops annually in the irrigated districts. In the markets of the world Oregon is famed for her fruits, especially for apples, strawberries and prunes. The fruit crop of 1907 brought to Oregon $4,000,000. Of the live stock, cattle, sheep and hogs are raised, though the largest herds of cattle and flocks of sheep are found in Eastern Oregon.

Manufactures. The principal manufactories are woolen-mills, flour-mills, paper-mills, fruit-canneries, fish-canneries, creameries, condensed-milk factories and coffee and spice mills. The dairy product for the year 1907 amounted to $12,000,000. Salmon is the principal fish that is canned here, and the value of the output of the canneries for 1909 amounted to $3,207,000.

Commerce. The largest sea-port is Portland, situated on Willamette River about 12 miles from its mouth. Other ports with food harbors are Astoria, Tillamook, Yaquina, Waldport, Florence, Marshfield, Randon, Port Orford and Gold Beach. The exports comprise lumber, wheat, oats, barley, hay, wool, hops, prunes, apples and strawberries. Portland leads the ports of the world in the export of lumber, and stands first on the Pacific Coast in the exportation of grain. Astoria, the oldest town in the state, has a beautiful harbor, and is situated near the mouth of the Columbia. Its principal industries are fishing, salmon canning and lumbering. The principal inland cities, Oregon City, Salem, Albany, McMinnville Corvallis, Eugene, Roseburg, Ashland, The Dalles, Pendleton, La Grande, Baker City, Prineville and Klamath Falls, are good manufacturing points, and are shipping centers for the products of the surrounding country. The ports of Oregon receive ships from all parts of the world, and her trade with the Orient is increasing each year.

Transportation. The principal railways are those of the Southern Pacific Company; the Oregon Railway and Navigation Company; and the Astoria and Columbia River Railroad Company from Portland to Astoria. The Portland and Seattle Company, a company controlled jointly by the Great Northern and Northern Pacific Companies, are constructing a line down the northern bank of the Columbia and across this river at Vancouver. Each of the first two companies has lines extending into the interior. The Willamette is navigable nearly 200 miles, and the Columbia to Lewiston, Idaho, about 650 miles, though broken by rapids.

History. In 1792 the Columbia was first entered by Captain Gray who gave the river its name. It came into the possession of the United States in 1803. Oregon meant all the northwest country until 1853, when the northern and southern boundaries were fixed. The American Fur Company founded Astoria in 1811. In 1859 the state was created with its present boundaries. The United States claimed this country by reason of Captain Gray's discovery, and the claim was strengthened by the Lewis and Clark exploration in 1805. In 1849 Oregon was organized as a territory. Prominent among early settlers were Nathaniel J. Wyeth, Dr. John McL.aughlin, Dr. Marcus Whitman (1836) and Jason Lee (1834).

Education. The school-district, governed by an elective board of from three to five directors, is the unit of the school system. This board manages the finances of the district, and elects the teachers. The districts of a county have a supervising officer called the county superintendent, while at the head of the system is the state superintendent of public instruction. The funds for the public schools come from the interest on the irreducible school-fund, a county tax and a district tax. The irreducible school-fund brings in about $250,000 annually. The county-tax must be such a sum as will produce at least $7.00 per capita for children of school-age. The district-tax is a special tax on the property of the district by a vote of its taxpayers. The schools have a uniform, state course of study. Eight years are given to the grammar grades and four to the high school. The course for the high school is planned to give a well-rounded education, in case the pupil is not able to study in a university or college. At the same time it correlates well with the courses offered in the state university and the agricultural college. The University of Oregon is open to all boys and girls who have completed an accredited high school course, and it offers courses in all departments of university work. Oregon Agricultural College offers courses in agriculture, engineering, horticulture and dairying. Besides the public schools, there are a number of private colleges and secondary schools. Notable among these are Albany, Columbia, Dallas, McMinnville and Pacific Colleges and Pacific and Willamette Universities. There are four state normal schools. The text-books for the Oregon schools are chosen by a state commission and are used for a period of six years. A compulsory educational law provides for truant officers who must check over the census and attendance rolls once each month with the teachers, and must see that every child between nine and 14 is in school. Severe penalties for teachers and truant officers are provided for neglect of this duty. The secretary of the state library-commission has charge of the school libraries. Each county must levy a tax for library purposes amounting to 10 cents for each child of school-age. The secretary has charge also of 50 traveling libraries, of which the total number of volumes now amounts to 2,750.

Orestes ( o-res´tez ), a Greek hero, the son of Agamemnon and Clytemnestra. His father was murdered by Clytemnestra and her lover Ægisthus, but Orestes was saved by Electra, his sister, and brought up at the

ORGAN

1393

ORINOCO

court of his uncle in Phocis. Pylades Ms cousin joined with him in his efforts to avenge his father's death, the pair going secretly to Argos and killing Clytemnestra and ^Egis-thus. But realizing that he had killed his mother, Orestes became mad and fled from land to land, pursued by the Furies. Learning from Apollo that he could be cured of his madness by bringing the statue of Diana from Tauris in Scythia to Athens, he and Pylades journeyed there, but were seized to be sacrificed by the natives. The priestess Iphigenia recognized her brother in Orestes, and with her help they all escaped, carrying the statue with them. Orestes recovered his father's kingdom at Mycenae, and married Hermione. The story of Orestes is a theme for the tragedies of Euripides, Sophocles and JSschylus.

Or'gan, one of the largest musical instruments. It is a wind-instrument having a large number of pipes, which produce the sounds on admission of air, which is carried to them by means of a bellows. It is played by keys and pedals. The most usual form of the organ is that seen in churches, which consists of four, sometimes of five, parts, each being almost a separate instrument. These are called the great organ, the swell organ, the pedal organ, the choir organ and the solo organ, when this fifth form occurs. Each has its own keyboard, but they are brought so close that one performer can reach all. The pedal organ is played with the feet, while the other keyboards are reached by the hands. There also is a system of stops, within reach of the performer's hand, which closes or opens the pipes as the keys do. Organ pipes are made of metal and of wood. The ancient organ was worked by water, and was used in the Roman theaters, Nero being one of its earliest patrons. In the reign of Honorius 400 A. D., no nobleman's house was complete without an organ, and small ones were carried by slaves from house to house. Constantinople was the great home of organ building in the ancient world, and the first organ built in medieval Europe was patterned after one brought by Byzantine ambassadors on a mission to Charlemagne, The use of the bellows in organs dates from the time of the Emperor Julian in the 4th century, though it did not come into general use until the end of the gth century. The smallest organs ever built were made in the monasteries; they were called regals and could be held on one's palm. The largest organs in England are those of Royal Albert Hall, Alexandra Palace, Crystal Palace, St. Paul's Cathedral, St. George's Hall, Liverpool, and Leeds town-hall. Among the largest in the world are the organs at Seville, Haarlem, Rotterdam and Utrecht. The great organ in the music hall of Boston gave the first impulse to organ building in America. There are large ones at cathedrals in Montreal and

Boston, Music Hall, Cincinnati, Fremont Hall, Boston, Brooklyn Tabernacle and the Auditorium in Chicago.

The American or cabinet organ is a reed organ, the outgrowth of the melodeon, in which reeds are used but not pipes, and the wind is forced in by bellows worked by the feet. The Mason and Hamlin Organ Company, founded in 1854, built the first cabinet or parlor organs, making use of an invention of Hamlin's, which consisted in so twisting and bending the reeds as greatly to improve the tone. ' These organs have been improved, and are made in all styles and sizes, some of the larger nearly equaling pipe organs.

Or'igen, one of the most celebrated of the Christian Fathers, was born at Alexandria, 185 A. D0 His father was a Christian and a teacher of rhetoric, and he was early trained for public life. Clement of Alexandria was his especial teacher in Christianity. His father suffered martyrdom when Origen was a young man, and he then sought to support the family by opening a school himself. Bishop Demetrius appointed him master of a famous seminary for catechumens, and, having mastered Hebrew, he soon became an authority upon questions of doctrine and polity. Nevertheless, his opinions were not popular with the ecclesiastics, and he was subjected to many trials, and finally excommunicated in 231. He was received at Caesarea, where he reopened his school with increased popularity. But the persecutions under Maximinus and Decius drove him to such extremes of suffering that he died at Tyre in 254. Origen was the first great New Testament exegete that ever lived. He devoted himself to every form of study which promised to throw the least light upon the great problems of theology and philosophy. He practiced the strictest asceticism, and voluntarily subjected himself to the most abject poverty. His work was greatly rewarded in the conversion of multitudes, among whom were many of the leading men of the east. His talents, eloquence and learning excited the praise of even the heathen writers; and while his doctrinal views have not been wholly accepted by any considerable portion of modern Christendom, his purity, unselfishness and devotion to his Master are beyond praise.

Orinoco (d'ri-no'ko), one of the great rivers of South America, rises in Venezuela. It divides into two branches near Esmeralda, one flowing south into Rio Negro; the other branch, joined by the Guaviare, turning north and passing over the cascades of May-pures and A cures, where the river, 8,000 feet wide, narrows to 20 feet, falling over cascade after cascade, like a series of steps, and shut in by islands and rocks. The Meta and the Apure* now join the Orinoco, which flows on, four miles wide, receiving the waters of two more streams before it reaches the delta.

ORIOLE

1394

ORLEANS

About 120 miles from the Atlantic the delta begins, covering 8,500 square miles and stretching along 165 miles of coast. Of these many channels by which the river empties into the Atlantic, only seven are navigable. The Orinoco is 1,550 miles long; 900 miles are navigable to the falls, and 500 miles above the falls. The river usually floods the country in its course from May to January, the overflow sometimes stretching across for 100 miles. Humboldt and Schom-burgh are the great explorers of the Orinoco.

Oriole (o'ri-ol}, any one of a family of Old World birds. The true orioles are related to the crows, and are not to be confused with the so-called orioles of the New World. The latter make a strictly^ American family, extending from Patagonia into the United States. The two families, although entirely distinct, resemble each other in color, the prevailing shades being yellow and black. It was this circumstance that led to the use of the name for the American birds. The true orioles are common in southern Europe and abundant in Oriental and Australian regions. The golden oriole is yellow and black in color, and makes a hanging nest. It is common in southern Europe, but is rarely found in the British Islands. (See BALTIMORE ORIOLE.) Our orchard oriole is not so famous as his gorgeous relative, nor so frequently seen in the north, but their songs are very similar, the orchard oriole's being richer in tone. This bird is about one fourth smaller than the robin, black above with touches of whitish-yellow on wings and tail, below a reddish-brown. It is a summer resident, its range from Canada to Central America. The orchard oriole shows a fondness for orchards, builds there a neatly-woven basket-nest made entirely of dried grasses; in June there may be found therein four whitish, brown-spotted eggs.

Orion (o-rf'on), a hero in Greek mythology, a handsome giant and hunter in Boeotia. At Chios he fell in love with Eos or Merope, and cleared the island of wild beasts to please her. When drunk he insulted her, which her father, with the help of Bacchus, avenged by putting out his eyes. He recovered his sight by exposing his eyeballs to the rising sun. There are several stories of his death; one that he was killed by Diana, whose hunter he became, because Eos had carried him off to Ortygia and offended the gods; another that Apollo, angry with Diana's love for Orion, seeing him swimming in the water, pointed out to her a black object, challenging her to hit it, and she shot it with her arrow, finding, when too late, that it was the head of her lover; a third story lays his death to the sting of a scorpion.

Orion, the brightest constellation in the northern heavens, is named after the Greek hero Orion, who was placed, with his hound, among the stars, and pictured with a girdle, sword, lion's skin and club. The three bright

stars across the center of the constellation are called Orion's belt.

Orizaba (o-re-$dfvd), a volcano in Mexico, 15 miles north of the city of Orizaba. It is 17,362 feet in height. The last severe eruption occurred in 1566.

Ork'ney Islands, a group off the northern coast of Scotland. Twenty-eight of the 90 islands forming the group are inhabited, the largest being Pomona. Hoy has fine cliffs and a hill 1,564 feet high, but the other islands are low and treeless, with many small lakes. Farming, fishing and straw-plaiting are the principal industries. On Pomona is a group of large standing stones arranged in two circles, the inner circle 100 feet across and the outer one 360 feet across, the largest stones being in the smaller circle. The towns are Kirkwall and Stromness. At Kirkwall are the cathedral of St. Magnus, founded in 1138, and a museum with many ancient relics, among others a collection of pins, brooches, bracelets and silver coins, thought to belong to the earliest period of Scottish history, found in 1858. The Orkneys, first inhabited by the Picts, were conquered by Norse rovers and belonged to Scandinavia till 1468, when they were given to James III of Scotland as a pledge for the payment of the dowry of his wife, Margaret of Denmark. The pledge was never redeemed, and in 1590 on the marriage of James VI with the Danish princess Anne, Denmark relinquished her claim to the islands. The population, which is partly Scotch and partly Scandinavian, numbers 36,438. See Orkneys and Shetland by Tudor and Description of the Isles of Orkney by Wallace.

Orleans (dr'U-anz), a French city, situated on the Loire River, 75 miles southwest of Paris. The Forest of Orleans, covering nearly 150 square miles, is near it. The ancient walls and gates of the city have since 1830 been made into boulevards. The Loire is crossed by a bridge 364 feet long. The noted buildings include the cathedral, destroyed by the Huguenots in 1567 and rebuilt by Henry IV and his successors; a museum ; and the house of Joan of Arc. There are three statues of Joan, a bronze one having been erected in 1855. The chief industry is market-gardening, and there are some manufactures, but its trade is of most importance, as it is a railroad center, besides having river and canal routes. Orleans was a Celtic town, called Genabum in 52 B. C., when the Gauls arose there against Julius Caesar. About 272 A. D. it was named Civitas Anreli-ani (City of Aurelius), of which Orleans is a corruption. Besieged by Attila in 451; twice plundered by the Northmen; in 1428 it was attacked by the English and delivered by Joan of Arc, called the Maid of Orleans. During the Huguenot wars it suffered severely, and in the Franco-German War was held a month by the Germans, and then be

ORLEANS

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came the headquarters of the army of the Loire, until its defeat on Dec. 3-5, 1870. See Life of Joan of Arc by Michelet. Population 72,096.

Orleans, Duke of, the title which has been used by three different French dynasties. It was first granted in 1302 by Charles VI to his brother Louis, who afterward was regent. His grandson became king as Louis XII in 1498, and the dukedom was merged with the crown. In 1626 Louis XIII made his brother Jean Baptiste Gaston, duke of Orleans and Chartres, who died childless. The title was granted by Louis XIV to his brother Philippe, whose son Philippe and grandson Louis Philippe Joseph (Egalite) bore the title. Louis Philippe, son of Egalite, was duke of Orleans during his exile, until he became king, when his son Ferdinand succeeded to the title. The Comte de Paris, the late head of the Bourbon house of France, has not used the title, which is assumed by his son, the present claimant to the throne of France, Louis Philippe Robert, who resides at Brussels. In French politics the adherents of the princes of the Orleans family are called Orleanists.

Orleans, Louis Philippe Joseph, Duke of, best known as Egalite, was born at Paris, April 13, 1747. His hostility to the court, especially to the queen, made him take part against the king, while lavishing his wealth in scattering liberal books and papers throughout the country. He led the 47 nobles, who in June, 1789, joined the deputies of the third estate and helped to change the states-general into a national assembly. In September, 1792, when all titles were swept away, he asked for a new name, and took the name of Egalite (equal). He voted for the death of the king. His eldest son, afterward King Louis Philippe, was on the staff of Dumquriez, and went with him into the Austrian camp, and at once, with the other Bourbons left in France, Egalite was imprisoned and by the Jacobins, when they gained power in the convention, he was convicted of conspiracy on slight evidence, dying on the guillotine at Paris, Nov. 6, 1793.

Or'nithol'ogy. See BIRDS.

Orontes (6-ron'tez), the ancient name of a river in Syria. It rises near Baalbek, and flows north between Lebanon and Anti-Libanus, as far as the city of Antioch, and then flows westward to the Mediterranean. It is 247 miles long, and in the lower part its rocky banks, 300 feet high, are covered with climbing vines, myrtles, laurels, figs and sycamores.

Orpheus (dr'je-us}, a Greek hero, thought to be the son of Apollo and Calliope (kal-ll'o-pe), one of the muses. His home was in Thracia, where many different places claim to be his birthplace. Orpheus, by his music on the lyre, given him by Apollo, moved men and beasts, trees and rocks. On his travels with the Argonauts, his music rocked

monsters to sleep and stopped falling cliffs. When Eurydice his wife died, Orpheus followed her to the lower regions, and his "golden tones" prevailed with Pluto, who allowed him to take her back, provided he did not look around while they ascended; but, looking back, he lost her forever. According to some traditions, he was killed by a thunderbolt of Zeus for revealing the divine mysteries, and by others he was torn in pieces by the Msenades, and buried at the foot of Mt. Olympus, where a nightingale sings over his grave.

Orsini (dr-se'ne), Felice, an Italian conspirator, was born in December, 1819, at Meldola. He studied at Bologna. As the son of a conspirator he was early admitted into secret societies, and was sent to the galleys for life in 1844. Pius IX, by an amnesty, restored him to liberty, but he was soon imprisoned for taking part in political plots. During the Revolution of 1848 he took part in the defense of Rome and Venice, and was active at Genoa and in the duchy of Modena. After its suppression he lived for some years in England, where he was intimate with Maz-zini. In 1854, while stirring up insurrection in Milan, Trieste and Vienna, he was arrested and sent to the fortress of Mantua, whence he escaped in 1856 and fled to England. There he supported himself by lecturing and wrote Austrian Dungeons in Italy. He at last planned the assassination of Napoleon III, the great obstacle, he thought, in the way of Italian independence. With three associates he stood near the opera-house in Paris on the evening of Jan. 14, 1858, and when the emperor's carriage drove up, threw three bombs under it, which exploded, killing 10 persons and wounding 146, but not injuring the emperor or empress. He and Pieri were guillotined, March 13, 1858, the others being sentenced to penal servitude. See Memoirs and Adventures by himself.

Or'tolan, a class of birds belonging to the finch family. It is about six inches long, with head, neck and breast of a yellowish gray, with brown wings. It builds its nest of dry grass on the ground in open fields, though sometimes under low bushes. They are found in summer as far north as the Arctic circle, and in winter as far south as Abyssinia and India. They are caught in large numbers in nets when on their journeys, and fattened in dark rooms, as their flesh is considered a great delicacy. In Japan they are pickled with spice and vinegar. The Romans gave large sums for them, and they are still highly prized in Italy.

O'sage Orange or Bow Wood, a tree, native of North America, somewhat like the mulberry. It was found growing in the country of the Osage Indians, which, with its yellow globes of fruit, gave it its name. It is also called mock orange. It grows from 20 to 60 feet high, and is a very valuable tree for its wood, which is yellow, fine grained, takes a high polish, and is very durable. It is used for posts, paving-blocks and railway ties. The Osage and other Indians used it for their bows and war-clubs. The bark is used in tanning leather, that of the roots yields a dye. The leaves are used for feeding silkworms in place of the mulberry, with a difference of opinion as to the result. The fruit, large and round, with a rough skin, has a woody pulp and bitter juice, and is not eaten. The tree has been largely used in America as a hedge plant, for which its rapid growth, thorny branches and freedom from disease adapt it. It thrives in rich bottom lands, and is found at its best in Red River Valley, in Indian Territory.

Osages, a tribe of American Indians of the Dakotah family. They were found by Marquette on the Missouri in 1673, but were driven by their enemies to the Arkansas. They fought with the French against the English and against the Chickasaws. They ceded their lands at different times to the government, and in the Civil War about 1,000 of the tribe went south. In 1870 the tribe was removed to Indian Territory and placed in charge of the Quakers, where they have grown more civilized, having a school and cultivating about 2,000 acres of land.

Osaka (ō′sȧ-kä) or Ozaka (ō′zȧ-kä), the second largest city in Japan, at the head of the Gulf of Osaka. It covers about ten square miles, and is crossed by canals with more than 1,000 bridges. The fine castle, built of enormous stones in 1583, and the palace, which was destroyed in 1858, were perhaps the handsomest buildings in Japan. The city is one of the open ports, the headquarters of the rice and tea trade and the commercial center of the empire. The harbor does not admit very large vessels. There is a foreign settlement, occupied mostly by missionaries. Population 1,226,590.

Os′car II, Frederic, king of Sweden and Norway, was born at Stockholm, Jan. 21, 1829. He was the great-grandson of Napoleon I's famous general, Marshal Bernadotte, the first king of the now independent kingdom of Norway; he succeeded his brother, Charles XV in 1872. He followed the policy of his brother, carrying out reforms and reorganizing the army and the railroads. He published a volume of poems, a translation of Goethe's Faust and a sketch of Charles XII. He died on Dec. 8, 1907. See Norway and Sweden.

Osceola (ŏs′sḗ-ō′lȧ), a chief of the Seminole Indians, was born in Georgia in 1804. His father was an English trader, and his mother the daughter of an Indian chief, who took him to Florida when a child, where he became influential among the Indians. His wife, the daughter of a runaway slave, was taken from him, and for his threats of revenge he was seized and imprisoned for six days by General Thompson, whom he killed, with four others, six months afterward. This was the beginning of the second Seminole War. At the head of a band of 200 or 300 Indians and runaway slaves, he carried on the contest for nearly two years, in the almost impenetrable Everglades. On Oct. 21, 1837, while holding a conference under a flag of truce, he was treacherously seized and imprisoned at Fort Moultrie, S. C., where he died on Jan. 30, 1838. He is the hero of Mayne Reid's Osceola.

Osh′kosh, Wis., the county seat of Winnebago County, is situated at the confluence of the upper Fox and Lake Winnebago in a thickly-settled and fertile region. Being naturally the center of the lumber interests of Fox and Wolf Rivers, it early became commercially important, and now has a population of 33,062. Besides its numerous sawmills, it is noted for its extensive manufactures of sash, doors, blinds, matches, carriages, sleighs, farm wagons, trunks, furniture, agricultural implements, flour, beer, logging tools, grass-twine goods and canned goods. It has fine public schools and churches, several large parochial schools, a state normal school, a state fish hatchery, and three miles north are the northern state hospital for the insane, a county hospital for the incurable insane and the county almshouse. The city has three hospitals, four parks, a beautiful library building of classic design, six banks, one daily paper, three railroads, a line of steamers for lake and river commerce and an electric railway system connecting the city with Neenah, Menasha, Appleton and other places. Near by is Lake Winnebago, 30 miles long and 12 broad, famous for fishing and for beautiful summer resorts.

O′sier. See Willow.

Osiris (ṓ-sī′rĭs), the greatest of Egyptian gods, is the son of Set (the earth) and Nut (heaven). He was slain by Set, his father, and avenged by his son, Horus. He judges the dead in the lower world. He is represented usually in human form, and always with the head of a man. His symbols are the evergreen and the tamarisk, and a kind of ibis, with long plumes. See Horus, Isis and Set.

Os′kaloo′sa, Ia., county-seat of Mahaska County, on the Chicago Burlington and Quincy; Chicago, Rock Island and Pacific; and Iowa Central railroads, about 60 miles southeast of Des Moines. It is a commercial center of a large agricultural district, and has a number of manufacturing interests. It has good public schools, a public library and churches. It also is a seat of two small colleges, Penn College under the auspices of the Society of Friends and Oskaloosa College under the auspices of the Disciples of Christ. It was settled in 1843, and incorporated 10 years later. Population 9,466.

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Os'ler, William, M. D., LL. D., P. R.

C. P., since 1904 Regius Professor of Medicine, Oxford University, England, a physician and surgeon of acknowledged ability, some of the operations he has performed being simply marvelous. He was born at Bondhead, Ontario, July 12, 1849, and educated at Trinity College School, Port Hope, and at Trinity University, Toronto, passing to McGill College, Montreal, where he graduated in 1872. He continued his i studies at University College, London, England, and at Berlin and Vienna, paying special attention to physiology and pathology. On his return to Canada in 1874, Dr. Osier was elected to the chair of these subjects at McGill and here, as later in the United States, he had a brilliant professional career. In October, 1884, he was appointed to the chair of clinical medicine at the University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, passing thence, five years later, to Johns Hopkins, Baltimore, Md., to take the professorship of the principles and practice of medicine and to become physician to Johns Hopkins Hospital. His success as a teacher is marked by ability and enthusiasm, and these qualities gained him his present prominent position at Oxford, besides many high honorary degrees. Dr. Osier believes that the real work of life is usually done by_ man's fortieth year and that after the sixtieth year it would be best for the world and best for themselves, if men rested from their labors. His writings inciude (besides addresses on Oliver Wendell Holmes and on Teacher and Student) The Principles and Practice of Medicine; Cerebral Palsies of Children; Lectures on Abdominal Tumors; Pectoris and Allied States; Chorea and Choreiform Affections; Cancer of the Stomach; Science and Immortality; other addresses and Counsels and Ideals — a volume of quotations from Dr. Osier's lectures and published work, made by a pupil.

Osman Digna (os-mdn' dig'no] ^ a leader of the Sudanese Arabs, was born at Suakim about 1836. His father and grandfather were slave-dealers; and the son followed the same calling, having marts for his slaves at Khartum and Berber on the upper Nile. He was the leader of the Sudanese in repeated outbreaks against the authority of the khedive, extending at intervals from 1881 to 1898, when at the battle of Om-durman his army was routed by Gen. Kitchener in command of the English and Egyptian forces, 11,000 Sudanese being slain. He was killed near Tokar in 1900.

Osman' Nubar, a Turkish general, was born at Tokat, Asia Minor, in 1832. He was educated at the military schools of Constantinople and became a cavalry officer. He fought in the Crimean War; took part in suppressing the rebellions in Syria (1860); in Crete (1867); and in Yemen (1874). He was commander of the fifth army corps in

the Turkish army at the outbreak of the Russo-Turkish War in 1877; was commandant at Widdin; and, after being driven back from Scalevitze, he intrenched and main* tained his army at Plevna almost four months, despite the fierce bombardment of the Russian forces. He was^, however, forced to surrender, Dec. 10, 1878, at which time he still commanded 43,000 men. His sword was returned to him by the czar, and he was promoted by the sultan to be minister of war in 1878. He also was made governor of Crete. In 1894 he became grand marshal of the palace. He died at Constantinople. April 4, 1900.

Os'prey. See FISH-HAWK.

Ossian (osh'ian), the great Gaelic poet, was, according to tradition, the son of Fionn MacCumhail, who lived in the 3d century A. D. Fionn gathered a band of warriors about him whose adventures constitute the literature of the Feinn. Ossian is said to have been carried away to the "isle of the ever-young," and when he returned, old and blind, to have told these stories of the Feinn. Ossian is best known through the work of James MacPherson, who in 1760, 1762 and 1763 published Fingal, a poem in six books; Temora, another poem, in eight books; and some shorter pieces, all claiming to be translations ot Ossian, the son of Fionn or Fingal. They brought him fame and wealth, and were translated into nearly every European language, Goethe, Schiller and Napoleon being among his admirers. But Dr. Johnson, with others, attacked them as forgeries, claiming that there was no Gaelic literature as ancient as the original of Fingal claimed to be. The truth seems to be that these translations were largely the work of MacPherson, and the Gaelic texts were prepared with or without the aid of his friends; but the heroic literature of the Gael on which his work was founded remains. See O^jian by Clerk and Reliques of Gaelic Poetry by Brooke.

Ostend (bst-end'\ a wateiing place in Belgium, on the German Ocean, 77 miles northwest of Brussels. Its sea-wall, 3 miles long, 40 feet high and 105 feet broad, forms a fine promenade, and two wooden piers projecting on both sides of the harbor are used for the same purpose. It is the resort from July to September of 20,000 to 25,000 visitors from all parts of Europe. It is an important fishing-station, has a school of navigation, a lighthouse and manufactories of linen, sailcloth, candles and tobacco. It dates from 1072 ; was besieged by the Spaniards from July 7, 1601, to Sept. 20, 1604; surrendered to the allies in 1706 and to the French in 1745. Since 1865 & nas been without fortifications. Population 41,698.

Osteopathy ( os-te-op1'a-thy ), a system of treating diseases by manipulation, which was invented by Dr. A. T. Sill, then of Baldwin, Kan., but later of Kirksville, Mo.,

OSTRICH

OSWEGO

where a large school has been founded. The system takes its name from the theory that all diseases are " caused by some displacement of some bone which causes obstruction to the flow of one of the fluids." This trouble it is sought to remove by manipulation of the parts affected, permitting the free operation of the fluids of the body," in which, it is asserted, all medicinal virtues by nature inhere. Special legislation in several western states permits the graduates of osteppathic schools to practice as licensed physicians.

Os'trich, the largest living bird, a native of the plains and deserts of Africa. The

YOUNG OSTRICHES — CALIFORNIA

wings are small and not adapted for flight, but the bird is a swift runner. It is said to go at the rate of a mile a minute with a stride, when under full speed, of twenty-two to twenty-eight feet. The male ostrich reaches a height ot seven feet and weighs from one hundred and fifty to two hundred pounds. It is called the camel-bird. The male has black feathers on the body, and white ones on the wings and tail. The latter are the plumes of greatest value. The female is plainer. The head and neck are unfeathered in both. There are three species of ostriches in Africa, they live in small flocks and are timid and difficult to approach. They are hunted on horseback, and advantage is taken of the fact that they

run in a circle. About ten eggs are laid in a hole in the sand, and sat upon by the male at night and by the female by day. These eggs are from five and one-half to six inches in longest diameter, and are equivalent to about twenty-four eggs of the common fowl. The shell is so thick and strong that it has been used as a water-vessel by South African tribes. In their native haunts ostriches feed on grass, herbs, insects and reptiles, but in captivity they swallow nearly everything not too large. Ostrich-farming is now carried on in Cape Colony, Australia, Buenos Ayres, the United States and other places where the African ostrich has been introduced. Great progress in ostrich-farming has been made in the last five years, in Arizona, California, Florida and Arkansas. The birds thrive on alfalfa, and where this pasturage is plentiful they have attained a larger growth than those imported from Africa, reaching a weight of 375 pounds and a height of 8 or even 10 feet. The female seldom lays a fertile egg until she is 3^-years old. The nest is a round hole in the ground, which the male scoops out with his feet. At first the female may lay her eggs on the ground, and the male will roll them into the nest. Incubators are used successfully in hatching the eggs, the period of incubation being 42 days. The ostrich is plucked for the first time when six months old, and should be plucked about every eight months thereafter during its life-time. The only feathers removed are those of the wings and tail. The ostrich is a long-lived bird. It is claimed by some writers that they live to be a hundred years old. Some which are known to be forty years old are still breeding arid producing feathers. Ostriches pair at four years and are then worth about $800 per pair. The yield of fea hers is about one and a half pounds yearly, worth $20 per pound. Consult Douglass : Ostrich-Farming in South Africa; Martin : Home-Life on an Ostrich-Farm; and Year Book of the Department of Agriculture (1905).

Oswe'go, N. Y., a city on Lake Ontario, at the mouth of Oswego River, 35 miles from Syracuse. It is divided by the river, which is crossed by three bridges, and has five miles of water frontage on the river and two and a half miles on the lake. It is the chief port on the lake, with a breakwater and lighthouse, and has five miles of wharves. Fort Ontario guards the harbor. This fort was rebuilt in 1905 at a cost of nearly half a million, and was made a four-company post. The city is built on slopes rising to 100 feet, and the shore of the lake is a bluff from 40 to 50 feet in height. The public buildings include the court house, city hall, state armory and public library. The river has a fall of 34 feet within the city, which is used as water-power for flour mills, knitting mills, foundries and iron works and for making steam shovels, dredges and steam engines; there also are woolen factories, one of the Diamond Match Co.'s factories, a Standard-Oil box-factory and breweries. The factory for corn-starch is one of the largest in the country, covering more than four acres. Oswego is one of the largest shipping-points on the Great Lakes for anthracite. The state normal school is located here. Oswego was a trading post of the English in 1720, and in 1727 a fort was built. It was taken by the French in 1756 and by the British in 1812. It became a city in 1848. Population 23,368.

Othel′lo, one of Shakespeare's four supreme masterpieces in tragedy, was perhaps written in 1604. Published in 1622 in quarto, in 1623 it appeared in the famous first folio. The alternative title of the drama is The Moor of Venice. The basis of the plot was adopted by Shakspeare from an Italian novel entitled Un Capitano Moro. The tragedy deals with the love and jealousy of Othello, a so-called Moor, who wins the love of the fair Venetian maiden Desdemona by his qualities of heart and head and his strange tales of adventure by flood and field. The villain, Iago, plays upon the jealousy of the otherwise great-hearted man, until, believing his wife to be false, Othello slays her and dies by his own hand.

O′tho I or Ot′to the Great was born in 912. He was the son of Henry I, emperor of Germany, and succeeded his father in 936. His reign was very successful; many tribes were brought by him into subjection; he held almost supreme power in Italy, both over the kings of Lombardy and the popes of Rome; he consolidated the German empire; and he established Christianity in Scandinavian and in Slavonic lands. He died in Prussian Saxony in 973.

O′tis, Elwell Stephen, an American soldier, was born at Frederick, Md., March 25, 1838.
GENERAL OTIS He studied law at Harvard and graduated in 1861. On Sept. 13, 1862, he entered the volunteer army as a captain (140th N. Y.), and was mustered out in June, 1865, as brevet brigadier-general “for distinguished services.” He was appointed lieutenant-colonel in the regular army, July 28, 1866, and rose to be brigadier, Nov. 28, 1893. He was appointed major-general of volunteers and assigned to the Philippine Islands, May 4, 1898, where he took chief command on the departure of General Merritt. He became military governor of the islands in 1899, and was appointed on the Philippine commission in the same year. He was promoted major-general in the regular army, January, 1900. General Otis was a famous Indian fighter during 1867-81, and published The Indian Question in 1878.

Otis, Harrison Gray, an American statesman, was born at Boston, Mass., Oct. 8, 1765. He studied at Harvard College, and was admitted to the bar in 1786. Sent to the legislature in 1796, he soon became leader of the Federal party. He was one of three commissioners sent in 1814 by Massachusetts to Washington to present to the government the subject of the damages inflicted on New England by the war with Great Britain. As United States senator in 1820, in the debate on the Missouri question, he strongly favored the restriction of slavery. He was a popular orator, and opposed the antislavery movement in his later years. He died at Boston, Oct. 28, 1848.

Otis, James, an American statesman and orator, was born at West Barnstable, Mass., Feb. 5, 1725. He studied at Harvard and at Boston, was admitted to the bar at Plymouth in 1748, and moved to Boston in 1750. In 1760, when advocate-general, the revenue officers asked his aid in obtaining search warrants from the superior courts by which they could enter any man's house in search of smuggled goods. Otis considered this illegal and refused, resigning his position and appearing on hbehalf of the people. His speech on the subject lasted five hours, and made a great impression, John Adams saying of it afterwards: “The child Independence was then and there born.” He was elected to the assembly, and was a delegate to the Stamp Act congress, which met in New York the same year; and a member of a committee of that body to prepare an address to the English house of commons. While in the Massachusetts legislature, the governor requested that a letter on relief from taxation, sent to the other colonies, be taken back by the legislature. Otis opposed the governor's requisition in a speech called by his opponents “the most treasonable declaration ever uttered,” and carried the house 92 to 17. He was severely beaten by some revenue officers in Boston in 1769, and lost his reason as a consequence of a sword cut on his head. He published several political pamphlets, The Rights of the Colonies Asserted being the best known. He was killed by lightning on May 23, 1783, while standing at the door of his home at Andover, Mass. See Life by Tudor.

Ot′tawa, Ont., capital of the Dominion of Canada, is on Ottawa River, 87 miles west of its junction with the St. Lawrence. Population, by census of 1910, 86,106. The New York Central has a terminus in Ottawa with a direct line to New York. The Grand Trunk and Canadian Pacific furnish excellent connections in all directions. There are four direct lines of road to Montreal. The city is well-known as the center and distributing point of an immense

OTTAWA

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lumber-area. Some of its wealthiest citizens have made their fortunes in the lumber-trade. Its water-power facilities are unexcelled. Within the city a great amount of power is immediately available and is attracting a large variety of industries. Rideau Hall, the official residence of the governor-general, is in Ottawa. Its electric street-railway service is one of the best in Canada. Its educational facilities are admirable. One of the provincial normal schools of Ontario for training teachers is located here. Ottawa has a large French population. The parliament buildings are imposing.

Ottawa, III., capital of La Salle County, at the junction of Illinois and Fox Rivers, in northern-central Illinois, 82 miles southwest of Chicago. It is situated in a rich region, and has a considerable trade in shipping grain, lumber and produce; besides manufacturing industries, which include plate and opalescent glass, glass bottles, electric-light bulbs, lamp-chimneys, pottery, tile roofing, drain tile, sewer pipe, firebrick, carriages, wagons, organs, saddlery and harness, agricultural implements etc., cream separators and pianos, Ottawa operates three sand-works, which prepare sand for glassmaking, and one which ships molder's sand — that is, the article as it is obtained. Ottawa's prominent buildings are Ryburn Memorial Hospital and Illinois Appellate Court etc. The city has excellent public schools, fine parochial schools and a high school library, besides Reddick and Odd Fellows' libraries. Ottawa has city ownership of its lighting and waterworks system. Pop. 9,535.

Ottawa River, Can., the depth of which at Grenville is from six to 15 feet, receives numerous rivers and falls into the St. Lawrence. In its course the river forms picturesque rapids and magnificent lakes. The water-power of the Long Sault is estimated at 20,681 horse-power. The Ottawa rises in western Quebec, flows west to Lake Temiskaming, thence southeasterly, separating Quebec from Ontario, and joins the St. Lawrence after a course of 750 miles. Chaudiere Falls at Ottawa are grand. It is navigable for steamers as far as Ottawa, 87 miles up.

Ottawa, University of, was established in 1848 by Joseph Eugene Guiges, first bishop of Ottawa. In 1889 ^ was by Pope Leo raised to a Catholic University with power to confer degrees. It was intended to have the same position in Ontario as Laval University in Quebec. It has a valuable museum of natural history. The attendance of students averages about 500. The present archbishop of Ottawa and the bishop of Alexandria were among its first students. The theological and the arts' course each cover four years. There are courses in law and engineering. Arch-

bishop Duhamel of Ottawa is Chancellor. Nearly all the professors belong to the Oblates.^ Amongst its graduates are not a few distinguished men.

Ottawas, a tribe of American Indians of the Algonquin family, living, when first found by the French explorers, in the northern part of Michigan. They fled from the Iroquois beyond the Mississippi, to the country of the Sioux, and after war with them went back to Mackinaw. They joined with the French, and after the settlement of Detroit a part of the tribe lived near it. At the close of the last war of the French for Canada, their chief, Pontiac, headed a great conspiracy against the English. In the Revolutionary War, they helped the English, but finally joined in the Indian treaty of Greenville, Aug. 3, 1795. A band of them settled on the Miami River, and when their land was ceded to the United States, a tract 34 miles square was reserved to them on the Miami. Other bands have taken up lands in the Indian Territory, while some are still found on the shores of Lake Superior and in Canada.

Ot'ter, an aquatic carnivorous animal related to the weasel, and highly valued on

account of its fur. Otters inhabit both the Old and the New World. They have an elongated, low body, with short limbs and webbed feet. They are seal-like in appearance, the color a seal-brown, brighter below than above. The common otter of Europe is similar in form to the American otter, but shorter, being about two feet long without the tail. The American otter is from three and a half to four feet long. It is found occasionally in Florida and the Carolinas, in portions of the Rocky Mountain region and from British Columbia to Central Alaska, but is rare. Otters are fond of sliding down slopes into the water; in winter they slide on the snow and enjoy coasting as well as a schoolboy. Among themselves they are playful and affectionate, are gentle and easily tamed. They feed almost exclusively on fish. They are expert swimmers and divers and readily overtake fish, which they bring to shore to devour. In certain parts of India and China the otter is taught to catch fish and assist in driving them into nets. It is said that when fishing is poor, otters sometimes resort to land-hunting. When disturbed with their young by an inquisitive dog, they have little trouble in defending themselves. They take excellent care of their offspring, the young usually numbering two. The dens

OTTER

OTTERBURN, BATTLE OF

1401

generally are near water with trie entrance under the water; sometimes a nest is found under a hollow tree, again in a cave well up a bank. The sea-otter is a related form but belongs to another genus. It is a true child of the ocean; "born at sea, on a bed of kelp, and literally rocked in the cradle of the deep." It is one of the most valuable of fur-bearing animals — a single skin will bring over a thousand dollars. It was once abundant in the Pacific from California northward, but now is very rare save about the Aleutian Islands, where at this late day it receives rigorous protection. It is about four feet long, its fine dense fur of a lustrous black. See Hornaday: American Natural History; Stone and Cram: American Animals.

Ot'terburn, Battle of, "the hardest and most obstinate battle ever fought," according to Froissart, took place near Otterburn, a small village in Northumberland, England, about 16 miles south of the Scottish border and 32 from Newcastle. Douglas, with his Scottish army, carried away Hotspur's pennon from Newcastle, saying that he would plant it on his own castle. "You shall not carry it out of Northumberland," swore Hotspur (Harry Percy). So the Scots encamped on a slope near Otterburn to give him time to regain his pennon. Hotspur, with 8,600 men, nearly four times the bulk of the Scotch force, attacked their camp, Douglas, hewing the way before him with his mace, fell mortally wounded, anxious only to hide his death from his followers till they had won the victory, saying: "Long since I heard a prophecy that a dead man should win a field, and I hope in God it shall be I." The Scots gained the day, taking Harry Hotspur and his brother prisoners. The date of the battle is Aug. ig, 1388. The Scotch ballad of Otterburn and the English ballad of Chevy Chase tell the story of this battle. See White's History of the Battle of Otterburn and Percy's Reliques, See BALLADS and CHEVY CHASE and PERCY.

Of toman Empire. See TURKEY.

Ottum'wa, la., county-seat of Wapello County, is on Des Moines River, 85 miles southeast of Des Moines. Surrounded by a fertile country, it has a large trade and manufactures agricultural implements, mining tools, iron and steel specialties. The city boasts of 40 churches, 14 schools, 10 banks and 60 factories. It is served by four railroads, and is in the heart of Iowa's coal-fields. Population 22,012.

Oudenarde (ou'den-dr'de), a town in Belgium on the Scheldt, 33 miles west of Brussels. It is noted as the scene of a famous battle, brought on by the efforts of the French to retake the city from Marlborough, who had captured it in 1706. It was the third of Marlborough's four great victories, and was gained on July u, 1708.

Oudinot (od'd&n&), Nicolas Charles,

duke of Reggio and marshal of France, was born at Bar-le Duc, France, April 25, 1767. He was made commander of ten battalions, which became famous as Oudinot's grenadiers. He was at Austerlitz and Jena, and won the battle of Ostrolenka, Feb. 18, 1807. For his brilliant services in the Austrian campaign of 1809 he was made marshal of France and duke of Reggio. He was one of the last to leave Napoleon, but left him entirely, remaining on his estates during the Hundred Days. He was made minister of state, commander of the royal guard and a peer of France after the second restoration. He died at Paris, Sept. 13, 1847. See Napoleon and His Marshals by Headley.

Ouida. See RAM^E, LOUISE DE LA.

Our Mutual Friend is a novel by Charles Dickens, first published in serial form and, with the last serial number in November of 1865, in book form. It is a story of London life in which some 50 characters are delineated. The story divides itself into three parts, in which John Harmon, Lizzie Hexam and Eugene Wrayburn, her lover, and two adventurers Mr. and Mrs. Lammle, are the respective centers of interest. These parts are connected by Mr. and Mrs. Boffin, the servants of John Harmon's father. The father is an eccentric old man, who, disinheriting his son, makes the Boffins his heirs. The son, after concealing his whereabouts for years, secures employment under the name of John Rokesmith as Mr. Boffin's secretary, who styles him Our Mutual Friend. In time he is recognized by Mr. Boffin who graciously turns his estate back to him.

Ou'zel, a popular name given to several birds, mostly of the thrush (MerulidcB) family. In Shakespeare and in Tennyson the blackbird is called an ouzel, but in America the name is for the most part restricted to small birds which look like land-birds but are aquatic in their habits. The American water-ouzel resembles a catbird in appearance, is solitary in its habits, and lives along the banks of dashing streams. It will surprise the spectator by dropping suddenly int o a brawling mountain cataract, and then ap pear swimming along through the pools by the use of its wings or, it may be, running swiftly along the bottom. Its food is composed of small mollusks or aquatic insects and their larvae, which it seeks among the stones at the bottom.

O'vary (in plants), the name of that bulbous part of carpels or pistils which contains

V

OUZEL

OVEN-BIRD

1402

OVULE

the ovules. As the term ovary is already well-established among animals in connection with the organ which produces eggs, its present application in flowers is extremely unfortunate, since the ovary of flowers holds no relation to a female sex-organ. It has been suggested on this account that the term ovulary be substituted for it in flowers. See FLOWERS.

Ov'en=Bird% a small bird but burdened with many names — teacher bird, golden-crowned thrush, golden - crowned wagtail, wood wagtail, etc. etc. It is a wood-warbler, spends most of its time on the ground or in undergrowth. It is shyest of the shy, its call of " teacher, teacher , TEACHER, TEACHER, TEACHER,

TEACHER " better known than the manner of its appearance. Very rarely heard, but rarest treat to him that hears, is its flight-song of the nesting season; an inspired, joyous warbling that the little bird pours forth from tree-top. It is smaller than the English sparrow, upper part of the body olive-colored, crown a golden-brown, underneath white, breast spotted. It is widely aiscnbuted in the United States, migrates in May and October, its preferred habitat dry woods. The nest is not easily found, so artfully fashioned and made to look a part of the leaf-covered ground; in form resembling an old-time Dutch oven, roofed over, the entrance not at the top but at the side, the structure of leaves, grasses, rootlets and weed-stalks. The creamy-white eggs are speckled, and number four or five.

O'verbeck, Friedrich Johann, a noted German painter, was born at Lubeck, Prussia, in 1789, and studied at Vienna and at Rome. He, with four others, founded a school of art that had much influence in Europe, though mocked at with such names as Pre-Raphaelites and Nazarites. A madonna, painted in 1811, brought Overbeck into notice, and he was employed by the Prussian consul to execute frescoes in his house at Rome illustrating the story of Joseph. His chief work is The Vision of St. Francis, a fresco at Assisi. Among his famous pictures are Christ's Entry into Jerusalem, at Lubeck; Christ's Agony in the Garden, at Hamburg; The Incredulity of St. Thomas, at London. Many of his drawings, as wfell as of his paintings and frescoes, have been engraved. He died at Rome, Nov. 12, 1869. See Life by Atkinson in the Great Artists Series.

O'vertones', sometimes called harmonics, are a series of weak tones which accompany the production of any given note on a musical instrument. The lowest string on a guitar is called an E string, because, when plucked, the lowest and the loudest note which it can emit is E. This note, E, is, therefore, called the fundamental. If we denote the number of vibrations per second in this fundamental note by unity, then the series of fainter notes, which accompany the fundamental whenever the string is plucked, will have frequencies which are denoted by the numbers 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, etc. These secondary notes are called overtones or harmonics. They are very marked in the case of stringed instruments provided with sounding boards (such as the piano and violin), and add greatly to the richness of the tone. They are nearly absent in the case of the tuning fork, and hence the pure but thin tone of the fork. See MUSICAL NOTATION.

Ov'id (Publius Ovidius Naso), the Latin poet, was born in Sulmo, Italy, March 20, 43 B. C. He was educated at home, his father putting him under the best of teachers to train him for the bar. He soon gave up the practice of law and went to Athens, Asia Minor and Sicily. His first success was won by his tragedy of Medea. Then followed his Epistles, imaginary love-letters. His Art of Love, his masterpiece, was published in three books. The Metamorphoses, in 15 books, contain some of the finest work in ancient literature The Fasti, only six books of which were finished, are a poetical commentary on the calendar, giving the origin of Roman feast-days. He was banished by Emperor Augustus to Tomi (Kustendje) on the Euxine, south of the mouth of the Danube, for some unknown offense. He admitted that the punishment was deserved, but says he was rather the witness than the author of the crime. In 9 A. D. he left Rome, making his home for the last eight years of his life at Tomi, constantly writing appeals to the emperor for a release from the sentence of banishment. Here he wrote the Tristia in five books and Letters in four, making him one of the most prolific of Latin poets. He died in 17 A D.

O'vulary. See OVARY.

O'vule (in plants), the peculiar megaspor-angium of seed-plants, which in gymnosperms is exposed upon a scale, and in angiosperms is inclosed within that part of the carpel called the ovary. It is the ovule which, after fertilization, becomes the seed. The ordinary ovule consists of the following parts: one or two integuments, which are distinguishable only above and leave a narrow passageway (micropyle) through which the pollen tube passes; and the nucellus or main body of the ovule, inclosed by the integuments, and containing the single large mega-spore (embryo-sac). Ovules are of various

OVEN-BIRD

OWEN

1403

OWL

sizes, and occur in various numbers in ovaries, from solitary to almost innumerable. Various modifications of ovules have received technical names, which are of no special value to the general student. See EMBRYO-SAC, INTEGUMENT, Nu-

CELLUS.

O'wen, Sir Richard, a British naturalist, was born at Lancaster, England, July 20,1804. He studied medicine at Edinburgh and London, but soon began his work in zoology and com-parative anatomy. In 1856 he became superintendent of the natural history department of the British museum. He visited Paris and made the acquaintance of Cuvier, with whose name his will always be connected in the science of zoology. Owen's researches in zoology number nearly 400; largely devoted to structure and embracing every class of animals from a sponge to man. He produced monographs or important papers on the pearly nautilus, the Venus flower-basket, king crab, the mudfish, anthropoid apes and many extinct birds and reptiles. Among his voluminous writings are Comparative Anatomy of Invertebrates, Comparative Anatomy and Physiology of Vertebrates, The Skeleton and the Teeth, History of British Fossils, Reptiles, Birds, Mammals. He died on Dec. 18, 1892. See Owen's Life of Richard Owen.

Owen Sound, Can., is in Grey County, Ontario, where Sydenham River flows into Georgian Bay. It is a terminus of branches of the Canadian Pacific and the Grand Trunk. It has an excellent harbor. Canadian Pacific boats leave twice a week for Sault Ste. Marie and Fort William. It owns its own gas and electric light plants. Population 10,000.

O'wensboro, Ky., a city on the Ohio, capital of Daviess County, in northwestern Kentucky, 112 miles southwest of Louisville. The city stands high and in a fertile region, both in regard to agriculture and to mineral products. Its chief industry, however, is tobacco, of which there are 12 or more factories and stemmeries; there also are a number of whiskey distilleries; two wagon and four buggy factories; school and church fur-$iture is manufactured, a solar glass work

and tannery established; foundries and machine shops; lumber, flour, planing and steam shingle mills; sewer-pipe and brick works. There are good schools, churches and public buildings. It is served by the Louisville and Nashville; the Louisville, St. Louis and Texas; and the Illinois Central. Population 16,011.

Owosso (6-wbs'd), Mich., a city in Shia-wassee County, on Shiawassee River, about 30 miles from Lansing. It is in an agricultural region, but engages in considerable manufacturing. It has carshops, sugar-works, a screen and door factory, furniture-factories, a casket-factory and others of less importance. The city has admirable public schools and good buildings, a business college, a ladies' library and several churches. The water works are owned and operated by the city, and it is served by three railroads. Population 9*639.

Owl, a bird of prey with a flat face and rosette of feathers about the eyes, making them appear large and conspicuous. There are about 200 species. For the most part they are birds of night and pass the day in secluded and dark places. A few, like the snowy owl and the hawk-owl, are day-birds. The common owls feed for the most part on smaller birds and field-mice. Since the latter are destructive to crops and vegetation the owls should be protected, if for no other reason than for their war upon these rodents. Preying at night, in their soft plumage flitting about silently, they dispose of animals that have hid by day from the hawk. Owls feed upon field-mice, rats, squirrels, fish, insects and other animal food, eating tneir prey entire ; later the indigestible parts, rolled into a hard pellet, are ejected from the mouth, and these pellets found in numbers about roost-ing-spots. Owls generally live in woods, and are seldom tamed. They fall ready prey to man, being easily trapped and shot, and their nests as a rule are openly exposed. They nest early, their young being fed on animal food instead of fruit. Their eggs are always pure white. The cry of the owl is well-known. It may be added that when angry or frightened the bird strikes its mandibles together like castanets. The barn owls form a distinct family. They have long faces, the feather discs on which are nearly triangular, and they are often called monkey-faced owls. The familiar barn-owl seldom molests birds, is the enemy of rats, and should be given, all protection. la color it is pale

LONG-EARED OWL

Vertical section of a flower-bud, showing sepals (s), stamens (a), and an ovule (kk) with two integuments.

OXALIS

1404

OXFORD

brownish-yellow, and it is of peculiar shape with legs long as compared to owls generally. It is less fluffy, its eyes are small and black, the face is outlined by a dark ring. It seeks shelter under roofs made by man, and is not infrequently found in a church-belfry. This owl is very widely distributed.

There are about 18 species of owls in North America; varying in size from the six-inch elf owl of Arizona to the great gray owl of the Arctic — over two feet in length. The latter bird, while always rare in the United States, is occasionally seen as far south as the Ohio River. There are four of the so-called horned owls: the long-eared, short-eared, great-horned and the screech-owl. The great-horned is a large, fierce member of the family, and does much to give the family as a whole a bad. name. It steals all kinds of poultry, turkey included, and preys on game-birds and other birds. But mention should be made of the fact that it devours also mice, rats, gophers and numerous other destructive mammals. In appearance it is quite splendid—of noble size; the abundant plumage a combination of brown, black, yellow and white, fine black bars across the breast; a distinguishing mark the large "horns." It belongs to wilder, heavily-wooded portions of the country, and in some localities is known as the hoot-owl. Perhaps the commonest in this country is the screech-owl, which nests about houses and is very widely distributed. It is quiet during the nesting season, but after the young are reared^ in July and August, its voice may be heard at night — not a screech, but a tremulous, quavering sound of mournful quality. This is a small, round-bodied owl, not much longer than broad; it is sometimes black and white, grayish in appearance ; sometimes reddish and white. It has noticeable horns. It eats sparrows and other birds, but destroys large numbers of mice, grasshoppers, locusts, cut-worms, beetles, caterpillars, crickets, lizards, frogs and crawfish. Hornaday recommends that the bird's numbers be limited, but that the bird be not exterminated. The long-eared in coloring resembles the great-horned, but is much smaller, and its very conspicuous ear-tufts stand on top of its head. This bird is very widely distributed in the United States, a very useful bird and should be protected. The short-eared also is deserving of protection, is the same size as the preceding, in color brownish-yellow above and buf^ below. Probably the most common owl in this country next to the screech-owl is the barred owl, the one that calls from deep wood the ghostly "whoo-whoo-whoo?" With its fellows it will sometimes unite in concert of hoots, an occasional shriek intermingled, ending with laughter full as eerie as the rest of the performance. It is a large, heavily-built owl, its plumage light-colored barred with black. Although it devours the de-

structive small mammals, it is also destructive to poultry, game-birds and other birds. The snowy owl, a beautiful bird either pure white or barred with black, nests in the north and visits the United States in winter. It is a day owl. It feeds on fish, birds, small mammals etc. The burrowing owl is a small western owl living in the holes of prairie dogs. It is a savage little creature, a great fighter, these owls frequently killing each other. They feed largely on grasshoppers, locusts, and other insects. Their color is mixed gray, their legs long and bare. See Hornaday: American Natural History.

Ox'alls, a genus of shrubs and herbs, abounds in South America, North America and South Africa. The leaves usually are compound, generally digitate in shape, and grow alternately, although simple leaves are occasionally found. The seeds of the Oocahs genus are similar to capsules, and have a hard elastic covering, which bursts in such a way as to project the seed to a distance. The oxalis shrubs are frequently grown for ornament in gardens, ai\d especially as borders. Many of them have bulbous roots, and some are edible, such as the South American oca. There are said to be more than 200 species of oxalis.

Ox'ford, a city of England and the seat of the University of Oxford, is near the union of the Cherwell and the Thames, 52 miles from London. The two rivers form a rectangle, on which the old part of the city stands. In the center of the town, called Carfax (meaning four-forked), the four main streets cross each other, running north and south, east and west. Besides the university buildings, there are St. Michael's church, with its tower? built in 1070; the Clarendon building, used for the Clarendon press until 1830; the Indian Institute, with a library and museum for the use of members of the India service or natives of India; Godstow, a ruined nunnery; All Saints', St. Barnabas, St. Aloysius and St. Aldgate's churches; Somerville Hall and Lady Margaret Hall, colleges for women; Wycliffe Hall, a theological school; Mansfield College, a Congregational divinity-school; and the town hall and public library. A cross, known as the Martyrs7 Memorial, was erected in 1841 in honor of the Oxford martyrs: Ridley, Lati-mer and Cranmer. The Port Meadow is an open common, and the university parks are kept in order by the university. Oxford is mentioned in the Saxon Chronicle as far back as 912 A. D. The towey, now St. Michael's church, was built by the Norman conquerors and commanded the approach to the northern gate of the city, which was removed in 1771. Empress Maud (Matilda) took refuge in Oxford when driven from London by Stephen of Blois (1142). In 1258 the reform known as the Provisions of Oxford, was the work of the "mad parliament" sitting at Oxford. In the Civil War it for a few years

AMERICAN OWLS

Great Horned Owl.

Barred Owl.

This image should be linked to Owl.

OXFORD

1405

OXYGEN

was the seat of the parliament and court of Charles I. Population 53,000. See Oxford City, by Boase, in Historic Towns Series and Oxford by Lang.

Oxford, O., a town, 40 miles northwest of Cincinnati. It overlooks the beautiful Miami valley and has some manufactories of agricultural implements, but is best known as a college town. It is the seat of Miami University, founded in 1809, and noted for the high positions attained by its graduates. Western College for women (formerly called Western Female Seminary, a school modeled after Mt. Holyoke. Seminary) and Oxford College are situated here. Population 2,017.

Oxford, Univer'sity of, one of the two great seats of learning in England- situated at Oxford, is a collection of colleges under one corporation known as "the chancellor, masters and scholars of the University of Oxford." There are 22 colleges and three halls, to some one of which all members of the university belong. The teaching staff numbers about 100, with 3,500 students. Each college is a distinct institution with its own rules. The head of the university is the chancellor, who usually is chosen from the nobility, holds ofUce for life, and receives no salary. The vice-chancellor, appointed by the chancellor, serves four years and is the real head. There are four governing bodies, called house of convocation, ancient house of congregation, modern house of congregation and the council. These bodies are made of college officers, professors, masters of art and resident graduates. The real management is in the hands of the council, consisting of the vice-chancellor, two proctors, who are the police officers of the university, six heads of houses, six professors and six graduates. The teaching in the colleges of the university is carried on by professors, lecturers and tutors. The professors do very little teaching, giving lectures perhaps twice a week and devoting their time largely to independent study. The college lecturers are the real teachers, but belong to the separate colleges, though their lectures are now open to the whole university. A large part of the work of the college course consists in taking papers, essays and translations to the tutors, who may be employed by individuals or by small classes.

Oxford, beginning in the early part of the 12th century, grew rapidly, its scholars being numbered by thousands as early as the i3th century. The four great orders of mendicant friars were attracted to Oxford, and established their schools in their convents, and were followed by other orders of monks. The Reformation, with the breaking up of the monasteries, destroyed half the glory of Oxford. The earliest college is Merton, founded in 1264 and transferred to Oxford in 1274, and the first institution organized into a college at Oxford, the earlier teach-

ings having been carried on in halls. The old quadrangle and the library of Merton are among the most ancient college buildings in Oxford. Balliol, founded by the mother of John Balliol, king of Scotland, in 1268; Oriel, founded in 1326 by King Edward II; Queen's in 1340; All Souls' in 1347; and Jesus, founded in 1571 by Queen Elizabeth, are among the older colleges. Christ Church is the cathedral of the diocese of Oxford and also a college. The cathedral was instituted by Henry VIII in 1546, and the college founded oy Wolsey in 1525. The entrance tower contains "Great Tom," one of the largest bells in England. The buildings of Magdalen (mdd'lin) College, founded in 1457, are thought to be the finest college-buildings in the world, and the musical services in its chapel have been famous for centuries. Other buildings connected with the university are the Bouleian, founded in 1602 by Thomas Bodley and now one of the largest libraries in the world; Radcliffe Library; Ashmplean Museum, the earliest public museum in England, containing British antiquities and some from Cyprus, Egypt etc.; Sheldonian Theater, built in 1669, for the ceremonies of the university; St. Mary's church, where are preached the university sermons; and the university observatory. The parks are the scene of most of the football games; and for a quarter of a mile along the river are moored the barges of the boat clubs. See Tom Brown at Oxford by Hughes and Colleges of Oxford by Clark.

Ox'us, the ancient name of a river in central Asia, now known as Jihun, Gihon and Amu Daria. It rises in the tablelands of Central Asia, flows through Bokhara and Khiva, and empties into the Sea of Aral. Its delta is 90 miles long, including many lakes and marshes. The river is used for irrigation mainly, though it has been ascended for 280 miles by steamboats. It is thought to have once flowed into the Caspian Sea, and to have twice changed its course since about 600 A. D. Its length is about 1,400 miles.

Ox'ygen, the most abundant and the most widely-distributed of all the elements, is a gas without color, odor or taste. In its free state (mixed, not combined, with nitrogen) it composes about one fifth of the air. Combined with hydrogen, it makes about eight ninths of all the water on the globe. Nearly-half of the earth's crust is oxygen in combination. It combines with all other elementary substances except fluorine, argon and several very rare gases resembling argon. It is necessary to animal life, and early chemists called it vital air. It was discovered at almost the same time in 1774 by Priestley and by Scheele. Lavoisier made many ingenious experiments to prove that the combustion or burning of bodies in the air is only their combination with oxygen. Combustible substances burn much more

OYAMA

1406

OZONE

vigorously in pure oxygen than in air. Oxygen is continually given off by the leaves of plants in sunlight, and this is evidently the source of the atmospheric supply, for the gas is continually consumed by the breathing of animals, combustion and decay.

Oyama (o-yah'mah}, Marquis Iwao, a distinguished Japanese soldier, was born in the province of Satsuma in 1842. He was tutored in his early youth by Saigo Nanshu, who is considered by the Jananese the greatest military genius whom J apan has produced since the days of lyeyasu, under whom he fought in the War of Restoration when the imperial forces fought against the men of the skogun. He was a military attache through the Franco-Prussian war, and studied in Germany from 1872 to 1875. In 1877, when the Satsuma men under the leadership of Saigo Nanshu, his old master, took the field against the imperial forces, Oyama, at the head of a division of the imperial forces, took the field against them. He served with distinction as Chief of Police, Associate-Minister of the Interior and Vice-Minister of War, and in 1882 was given the portfolio of Minister of War. In 1884 he was appointed Chief of the General Staff, and 10 years later in the Chino-Japanese war commanded in the field the army entrusted to besiege Port Arthur. Twenty-four hours after the siege began he was being carried through the streets of the fortress, once thought impregnable, on the shoulders of his men. In the Russo-Japanese war he was Commander-in-Chief of the five Japanese armies in Manchuria and won the battle of Mukden against Kuropatkin, Russia's greatest general. Marchioness Oyama is a graduate of Vassar College.

Oys'ter, a common bivalve-shelled mol-lusk, extensively used as food. It is related to the clam and mussel, belonging to that group of mollusks with plate-like gills (Lam-ellibranchiata). The two valves of the shell in the clam and mussel are similar; but in the oyster one side (the lower one) is much larger. In clams and mussels the shell is closed by a pair of muscles, located at either end of the shell, but in the oyster there is a single muscle located near the center of the shell. The dark violet spot on the inside of an oyster-shell marks the position of that muscle. In structure and habits the oysters are much like the clams. The water is strained through the gills, and the minute food particles are thus separated. They are carried forward to the mouth by the action of cilia. The digestive and circulatory systems are fairly well developed. The nervous system consists of three chief clusters of nerve-cells with connectives and nerve fibers. Oysters were formerly distributed along the Atlantic coast, from the Gulf of St. Lawrence to the Gulf of Mexico, but are now rare north of Cape Cod. Chesapeake Bay is the center of

the oyster-beds. There are two kinds—a rounded form, found north, and a more southern, elongated form. They are found also on the coasts of England, Europe, Japan, the Cape of Good Hope and Australia. The fisheries are very extensive, and the animals are protected by laws. From May to September they are not caught, as that covers the period of breeding. The United States leads the world in the production of oysters, and far the largest supply comes from Maryland. In 1894 more than 29,000,000 bushels were taken on the coast of the United States, valued at more than $16,500,000. Oysters were used as food by the ancient Romans, and it is claimed that the Japanese engaged in oyster culture 18 centuries before Christ. See Brook's The Oyster.

O'zark Mountains, a range in Missouri. They start from Missouri River, cross part of Missouri and Arkansas, and enter Indian Territory. The Black Hills and the Washita Mountains of Arkansas are parts of the range. The highest peaks have an elevation of 1,500 to 2,000 feet.

O'ziums are the largest group of Pueblo Indians. Their village is situated on a small stream about 40 miles southwest of Fort Wingate near the western boundary of New Mexico. They number about 1,500, and are slowly decreasing. They are peaceable, industrious in their native arts, faithful to their ancient beliefs. In agriculture, housebuilding, pottery, weaving, social organization and ceremonial observances they resemble the Pueblos generally, of whom they and the Hopi may be considered the most typical tribes. They are a remnant of the Aztec empire.

O'zone is the active form of oxygen which is produced by the action of electricity upon ordinary oxygen and in other ways. It is not possible to convert oxygen gas entirely into this form. But, by cooling a mixture of oxygen and ozone to a low temperature, the ozone may be condensed to a deep blue liquid which is unstable and readily explodes. When mixed with air, as ordinarily obtained, ozone possesses a powerful odor resembling that of diluted chlorine and is the most powerful oxidizing agent known, attacking india-rubber, paper and other organic substances and corroding mercury at ordinary temperatures. It is unstable and gradually changes to ordinary oxygen upon standing, while it undergoes this change instantly upon heating. It has been shown that ozone gas is one and one half times as heavy as oxygen; hence chemists believe that the particles or molecules of this gas are made of three oxygen atoms, while ordinary oxygen molecules are made of two atoms. Very minute quantities of ozone probably exist in pure air, particularly that coming from the sea. The popular notion that this ozone is beneficial to health is not based on any certain facts.

H. L. WELLS.

Page 1407 : P — PACKARD

Individual articles:

P (moved).

Pacific Ocean or South Sea is the largest of the divisions of the ocean, including about half of the water surface of the globe and covering more than one third of the whole earth. It is 7,000 miles long, and its greatest breadth is 10,000 miles, with an area of 56,000,000 square miles. It is deeper than the Atlantic, averaging about 2,530 fathoms. There are two trade-winds, blowing almost constantly, one from the northeast and the other from the southeast, on which the surface currents of the ocean depend. Along the equator is a region of calms, and north and south of the trade-winds there are belts of calms. A cold current from the Antarctic Ocean flows along the coasts of South America, and a warm current from the equator flows west, dividing into two branches; one known as the Japan or north equatorial current flows north past Alaska, resembling in its effects the Gulf Stream in the Atlantic; the other turns south and flows along the shores of Australia and New Zealand. (See Ocean-Currents).

The largest American river flowing into the Pacific is the Yukon, 2,000 miles long, emptying into Bering Sea; besides this are the Fraser, Columbia, Sacramento and Colorado Rivers. The rivers of South America flowing into this ocean are only mountain streams, as the Andes Mountains approach so closely to the coast. The rivers of Asia, however, that flow into the Pacific are among the largest in the world, including the Amur, Hoang-ho, Yang-tse-Kiang, Mekong and Menam. The coasts of America and Australia bordering on the Pacific are generally mountainous, though the shores of Alaska are low and swampy, and the southern part of South America is broken with bays and islands. The Gulfs of California, Panama and Guayaquil are the most important gulfs of the Pacific on its American coast. The coasts of Asia are low and fertile, with many gulfs, bays and groups of islands. Bering, Okhotsk, Japan, Yellow and China Seas are formed by the peninsulas and islands on the Asiatic coast.

The Pacific is remarkable for its myriad small islands and groups of islands. On the American coast are Vancouver, Queen Charlotte, Prince of Wales and others in British America; Tierra del Fuego, the islands on the coast of Chile and the Aleutian Islands; the islands of Japan, Formosa, Philippine Islands, Borneo, Celebes, Sumatra, Java and New Guinea are Asiatic islands, while in mid-ocean are many groups of volcanic origin. The Hawaiian, Ladrone, Marshall and Gilbert Islands in the North Pacific and the New Hebrides, Society, Fiji and Friendly (or Tonga) Islands are the principal of these island groups.

The Pacific was first seen (1513 ) by Europeans from a mountain in Panama, by Balboa, a Spaniard. Magellan, making his way through the Strait of Magellan, was the first European to sail it (1520). He named it Pacific, because of its quiet waters. The first English navigator that explored it for any distance was Sir Francis Drake. The northwest passage through the Arctic Ocean into the Pacific was discovered by Sir Robert McClure in 1850, and the northeast passage in 1874 by Nordenskjöld.

Pack′ard, Alpheus Spring, an American naturalist, was born at Brunswick, Me., Feb. 19, 1839, graduated from Bowdoin in 1861, and became assistant to Agassiz at Cambridge. After taking part in several scientific expeditions, he became state entomologist of Massachusetts and professor of zoology and geology at Brown University. He was widely known as an entomologist and zoologist; founded and for about 20 years edited The American Naturalist; and for five years (1877–82) was a member of the national entomological commission. During the Civil War he was assistant surgeon to the Maine Volunteers, and for about a year did much service in the field. Afterwards, for a time, he was librarian and custodian of the Society of Natural History at Boston. He also for a number of years was curator and a director at Peabody Institute, and an authority on agricultural insect pests. He died in 1905. Besides many technical papers, his publications include Guide to the Study of Insects, Our Common Insects, Zoology, Entomology for Beginners, Text-Book of Entomology, The Mammoth Cave, Life History of Animals, Half Hours with Insects, Observations on Glacial Phenomena, Insects Injurious to

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Trees, A Naturalist on the Labrador Coast and Lamarck: the Founder of Evolution.

Paderewski (pa1'de-ref'ske), Ignace Jan, a Polish pianist, was born in Podolia, a province of Russian Poland, 10.^1860. He "began his musical studies when six, but with very imperfect teachers, and at 12 went to the conservatory at Warsaw. He made his first musical tour through Russia at 16, and was made a professor of music in the conservatory. Subsequently he gave himself still more devotedly to his art, studying at Berlin and Vienna, and was appointed a professor in the conservatory at Strass-burg in 1883. While here, visiting a summer resort, to amuse his friends he once extemporized upon a theme in the style of every great composer, sitting down to the piano in the evening and playing until five in the morning. He made his first public appearance as a musician at Vienna in 1887, his wonderful reputation as a performer on the piano having been made since that time. He does not depend upon his genius, great as it is, but on practice and study, shutting himself up before a concert and practicing all night. He is particularly happy in his interpretations of the works of Rubinstein, Chopin, Liszt and Schumann. His musical compositions were nearly all written before he was five and twenty; Polish Dances, Song of the Voyager, Menuet and others are among those most valued.

Padua (pad'n-a) or Padova, one of the oldest cities of Italy, was in the $th century ruled by the Huns, then exchanged between the Goths and the Byzantine empire, and from 1318 to 1405 was ruled independently by a lord. In the latter year it was conquered by Venice, which held it until 1797, when it was given to Austria, which, except from 1805 to 1814, ruled it until incorporated into Italy in 1866. The old streets are dark and narrow, and a wall still surrounds the town. The most notable building is the municipal palace (1172-1219), whose roof, 267^ feet by 89, is the largest in Europe unsupported by pillars. Padua also has many old churches. The university, which dates from 1222 and has 71 teachers and 1,364 students, has long been celebrated. There is no manufacturing industry. Population 96,135.

Padu'cah, Ky., the seat of McCracken County, stands on the Ohio about 48 miles above its mouth, and enjoys a large river and rail trade. The principal thing of note connected with Paducah is its ice-harbor in the mouth of the Tennessee where boats from the northern courses of the Mississippi, Ohio and Illinois Rivers lie through the winter, thus avoiding the freezing of ice and its effects on them. Marine ways and dry-docks of large capacity are here. One of the largest peanut factories in the south; glass-plant; largest basket factory in the

south if not in the world; immense river traffic; largest Illinois Central shops outside of Burnside, 111.; cordage factory, knitting mills and pants factory are among the industries. It handles more distilled liquors than any other southern city outside of Louisville, and the lumber mills make large foreign shipments. The city has an excellent public school system, many me school-buildings and the service of two railroads. Population 22,760.

Paganini (pa'ga-ne'ne), Nicolo, a famous Italian violinist, was a porter's son, born at Genoa, Feb. 18, 1782. He early devoted himself to his instrument, practicing sometimes ten hours at a stretch, and in 1793 gave his first concert. His professional tours began in Italy in 1805, extended through Germany and Austria in 1828 and 1829 and Paris and London in 1831. He returned to Italv very wealthy and died at Nice, his violin in his hand, May 27, 1840. See Grove's Dictionary of Music, Vol. II, and Engle's jp* 'ow Mozart to Mario.

Page, Thomas Nelson, noted as a writer of stories and poems in the negro dialect was born in Hanover County, Va., April 23, 1853. He studied at Washington and Lee University, and for a time practiced law at Richmond. He wrote his first story, Marse Chan, in 1884, and a collection of his writings is published under the title In Ole Virginia. Meh Lady and Marse Chan are two of his most popular books. In 1888 he published a volume of verse entitled Befo' de War, an J in 1892 issued a collection of essays bearing the title of The New South. His other realistic stories and novels include Two Little Confederates, Elsket, On Newfound River, Pastime Stories, Red Rock and Gordon Keith—almost all his work deals with southern and, chiefly, with negro life, in Virginia. In 1913 President Wilson appointed him Ambassador to Italy.

Page, Walter H., American Ambassador to England under Wilson, was born in Gary, N. C., Aug. 15, 1855. Graduating from Johns Hopkins, he became a newspaper writer and, later, successively editor of the Forum and the Atlantic Monthly. As a member of the publishing firm of Doubieday, Page & Company, he established the World's Work. On account of his rare ability in dealing with social problems, he was appointed a member of the Country Life Commission by Roosevelt.

Page, William, an American painter, was born at Albany, N. Y., Jan. 23, 1811. He received a premium from the American Institute in New York for a drawing in india ink when 11, and a medal from the National Academy before he was 17. His full-length portrait of Farragut at the battle of Mobile was presented by a committee in 1871 to the emperor of Russia. He died on Staten Island, New York, Oct. i, 1885. Paine, Robert Treat, an American statesman, was born at Boston, March 11, 1731. He was a graduate of Harvard and a student of theology and law. He was chaplain in 1755 of the provincial army of the northern border, and became prominent in the contests preceding the Revolution, being a delegate of the convention called in 1768 at Boston and in 1770 managing the prosecution of Captain Preston for firing on the people. He was a member of the General assembly of Massachusetts in 1773 and 1774 and of the Continental Congress from 1774 to 1778, and also signed the Declaration of Independence. He was judge of the supreme court of Massachusetts and attorney-general for ten years He died at Boston, May 11, 1814.

Paine, Thomas, an English writer and free thinker, was born in Norfolk, Jan. 29, 1737, and became staymaker, marine, schoolmaster, exciseman and tobacconist in turn. In 1774 he sailed for America. In 1776 his pamphlet Common Sense appeared, followed a year later by The Crisis. While he was serving as a private at Trenton, Congress gave him the position of secretary of the committee of foreign affairs, but he lost the post in 1779 and was appointed clerk of the Pennsylvania legislature. In 1785 he was given $3,000 and the New Rochelle farm by Congress. He returned to England in 1787, and in 1791-92 published his Rights of Man and the famous reply to Burke's Reflections upon the French Revolution. This work caused much trouble and he fled to Paris, where he was elected to the national convention which tried Louis XVI. Favoring the king, he offended Robespierre and was imprisoned eleven months. Before his arrest he had written Part One of The Age of Reason, and Parts Two and Three appeared in 1795 and 1807. In this he decried atheism and Christianity and advocated deism. He returned to America in 1802, became a drunkard, and died at New York, June 8, 1809. See Leslie Stephen's History of English Thought in the 18th Century.

Pais′ley, a city in Renfrewshire, Scotland, is situated on the White Cart, three miles above the Clyde and six from Glasgow. It was first heard of in 1157, was burned by the English in 1307, and suffered in the Reformation in 1561. It was made a free burgh in 1488. The chief public edifices are the municipal buildings, courthouse, the county buildings and library and museum. The manufacture of Paisley shawls has become extinct, but the works of cotton thread, dyeing, bleaching, tartans, woolen shawls, chemicals, starch, corn flour, carpets, and distilling and brewing flourish. Population 84,477.

Palatinate (pȧ-lăt′ĭn-ât), the name of two German states united before 1623. They were called the Upper and the Lower Palatinate, the Upper being what now is the kingdom of Bavaria, and the Lower lying on both sides of the Rhine and bounded by Mainz, Treves, Lorraine, Alsace, Baden and Württemberg. The capital was Heidelberg. The Rhenish Palatinate was established as an hereditary possession as early as the 11th century, and in 1216 it was granted to the duke of Bavaria, and this and the Bavarian territory were held by the Bavarian house. In 1559 the Rhenish territory and the electoral vote passed to Frederick III; afterward to Frederick V; and finally to his son. In 1801 France took possession of the western part and gave the eastern to Bavaria, Nassau and Hesse-Darmstadt. The left bank was restored to Germany in 1815, the larger part going to Bavaria, the rest being divided among other provinces. Today two districts of Bavaria are known as the Palatinate proper (Rheinpfalz) with an area of 2,372 square miles (population 937,085) and Upper Palatinate (Oberpfalz), with an area of 3,862 square miles (population 600,284). The capital of the latter is Ratisbon (Regensburg) on the Danube, population 52,624.

Pal′atine Hill. See Rome.

Pa′leobot′any, the science which deals with fossil plants. It is the correlative of paleontology, which deals with fossil animals. It is the function of paleobotany to work out the history of plant-life on the earth. This involves the determination, as far as possible, of plants which have lived in successive ages and the relations of those of one age to those of previous and succeeding ages. The science is as yet but poorly developed.

Pa′leontol′ogy, the science which deals with fossils. Vertebrate paleontology deals with the fossils of vertebrates; invertebrate paleontology with the fossils of invertebrates; paleobotany with the fossils of plants. All system of rocks younger than the archean contain fossils. Roughly speaking, they are more abundant in the later systems than in the earlier, and but few have been found in the Algonkian. The animal and plant fossils of a given system of rocks represent the fauna and flora, respectively, of the period when the system was formed. It is customary to speak of the fossils themselves as the fauna and flora; the cambrian fauna consists of the fossils of the cambrian system; the lower cambrian fauna of the fossils of the lower division of the cambrian system; the middle cambrian fauna of the fossils of the middle division of the cambrian system; and so on. It is the province of paleontology to determine (1) what fossil forms occur in the rocks of each system and in the rocks of each part of each system; (2) the origin of each fauna; and (3) the relations of each fauna to its successor. The first point mentioned above involves a knowledge of the geographic diversity of

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mals at ©ach stage of the earth's history. For example, there have been times when faunas were essentially cosmopolitan, that is, when the same species were essentially worldwide in their distribution. There have been other times when the faunas were colonial, that is, when geographic diversity was very great. These facts and their explanation belong to paleontology. Paleontology also involves the study of the fossils in the earlier and later parts of a system. The second point mentioned above involves the determination of the question as to whether the fauna of a given system or part of a system originated from the fauna which lived in the same region at an earlier time; or whether it represents immigrants into the region where it occurs; or, lastly, whether it resulted from the commingling of resident forms with immigrants. The third point mentioned above is akin to the second. It considers a fauna in connection with its successors and descendants, instead of in connection with its predecessors and ancestors. A complete knowledge of paleontology would involve a complete knowledge of the living forms of each stage of the earth's history. It would do for all forms of life what history essays to do for the human race.

Paleontology is of great service in determining, or helping to determine, the age of rock formations, when their age could not be determined by other means. After the study of fossils has progressed so far as to make known the faunas of successive periods, the finding of the fossils of any one of these faunas in a given bed of rock determines the age of the bed. In making such determinations the general character of the fauna as a whole, rather than any single species, is to be relied on. Those phases of paleontology which involve the study of fossils for determining the age of formations or for determining the relations of land and water at successive periods or for the determination of geologic conditions of any sort are sometimes called paleontologic geology. Paleontologic geology, therefore, involves the study of fossils for the light they may throw on earth history. Paleontology also affords one of the chief lines of investigation for the solution of many of the problems of biological evolution. Those phases of paleontology which involve the study of fossils for the light they may throw on the history of the animal life of earth are paleontologic zoology. The term paleontologic botany would have a corresponding meaning in connection with plant life.

In a general way it is true that the animals and plants of any period are, on the whole, of higher types than those of preceding periods; but, while this is true as a general statement, it does not follow that the representatives of any class of animals in any given period are of higher type than

any of the representatives of the same class at an earlier time. For example, trilobites became extinct at the end of the paleozoic era. (See GEOLOGY.) The last of the trilobites were not higher in type than earlier representatives of the same group. The living representatives of some types of animals are less highly organized than ancient representatives of the same type. Paleontology seems to show that evolution is primarily differentiation, not ascent. Differentiation, in this connection, means the derivation of various types from a single type. Some of these derivative forms may be higher than the ancestral form, while others are lower. In the struggle for existence the higher types, on the whole, seem to have got the better of the lower, not to the extent of annihilating the latter, but to the extent of allowing the former to dominate them. While the succession of fossils supports, in a general way, the doctrine of evolution, it has, in few cases, afforded the specific forms which demonstrate a connected line of ancestry between living forms and very ancient ones.

It is probably true that many forms of life which have lived in the past were never fossilised. It is probably true that very many forms which have been fossilized have not been found. Most fossils which are now known are the fossils of species which lived in shallow water or in marshes and lakes. Relics of those forms of life which lived on dry land are rarely preserved. The relics of animals which live in the deep sea are likely to be preserved, but have rarely become accessible, for the fossiliferous formations of the land were, for the most part,, made in shallow water. Present knowledge of ancient life is, therefore, very far from complete, and must always remain so.

R. D. SALISBURY.

Palermo (pd-ler'mo), a seaport, archbishopric, former capital of Sicily, now the fifth city of Italy, stands on the northwest corner of the island in a valley before Mount Pel-legrino. The city was first known as the Phoenician Panormus. It was successively conquered by Pyrrhus (276 B. C.), by the Romans (254 B. C.), by the Vandals (440 A. D.), by Belisarius, the Saracens, the Pisans and the Normans. In the earthquakes of 1693, X726 and 1823 the city suffered much. It revolted against the kings of Naples in 1820 and 1848, and was freed by Garibaldi in 1860. The streets are lined with old and picturesque buildings of interesting architecture, the most conspicuous being the Cathedral of St. Rosalie, the royal palace, the churches of Martorana, St. John of the Hermits and San Cataldo, the archbishop's palace, town house and arsenal. A state university founded in 1805 has its seat at Palermo, with a teaching faculty of 61 and 1,083 attending students. The industries are insignificant, but the shipping

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PALIMPSEST

of oranges, lemons, dried fruits, sumac, tartar, grain, oils, manna, sulphur, wine and lemon juice are very large. Population 319,-ooo. See Freeman's History of Sicily.

Palestine, the Bible's land of Canaan, land of promise, Holy Land and land of Israel, was at the time of the conquest inhabited by six nations: the Canaanites, Hivites, Hittites, Ammonites, Perizzites and Jebusites. The invaders settled in allotted lands, and the struggles for possession followed for some years, although no tribes were dispossessed. In early times the tribal distinctions were strongly preserved, but later, as spoken of in Judges, the cities rose and fell, and Jerusalem became the capital of David and Solomon; but on the founding of the northern kingdom Shechem, Tirzah and Samaria became in succession the capital. On the return of the Jews from captivity they inhabited the territory between Jerusalem and Beersheba and Jericho and Lachish, while the Philistines retained their lands undisturbed. Under Herod the Great, who governed the entire country, the kingdom included Galilee, almost unknown in the Old Testament, Samaria, Judaea, Idu-maea, Perasa, Gaulonitis, Auranitis and Tra-chonitis. The most populous and fertile of these provinces was Galilee. The prosperity fostered by the Roman rulers disappeared on the conquest by Vespasian and the destruction of the temple by Titus. The second time the Jews rose in revolt, led by Bar-Cochba the pretended Messiah, led to the bloodiest of all wars, including the siege of Jerusalem, but the revolt was put down before the fortress of Bether. (See JEWS). For the next hundred years the progress of Christianity was rapid, and after the conversion of Constantine and the building of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre the history for three hundred years is the story of the church. In 614 A. D. King Chosroes of Persia entered Syria and was joined by the Jews, who looked to him for deliverance. They massacred 90,000 Christians in Jerusalem and burned all the buildings. Fifteen Sjars later the country was retaken by eraclius, only to have it fall into the hands of the Mohammedans, in whose control it remained for four hundred years. About 640 the Mosque of Omar, the most beautiful building in the world, was built by Byzantine architects. The crusades failed to relieve the oppression, and the country went from bad to worse as regards progress, and the ruins crumbled further.

Palestine covers an area of about 12,000 square miles, is bounded on the north by the river Kasimiyeh, on the east by the Jordan and on the west by the sea. Ranges of hills run over the entire country from east to west and, as the Bible says, it consists of desert, hills, plains and valley. The principal elevations are Jebel Jermuk, 3,934 teet; Mounts Carmel, Ebal, Gerizim, Tdl

Asur and Rasesh Sherifeh. The valley of the Jordan begins near the Mediterranean and runs from 5 to 13 miles wide to the plain of Jericho. The Dead Sea is another feature of interest, it having no issue for its waters save by evaporation. The country has few rivers. The Mefshukh, Namien, El Mukatta and a few others flow into the Mediterranean; the Yarmuk, Rukkad, Zerka and Mojib flow into the Sea of Galilee. The summers are extremely warm and the winters cold and wet. At present the modern spirit of improvement is at work in Palestine, roads are being built, railroads run from Jaffa to Jerusalem, from Beirut to Damascus and from Haifa to Damascus, and new colonies with new buildings are scattered over the entire land. The ruins are disappearing, and a modern country is springing up from the ashes. Population estimated at 1,000,000. See E. Hull's Physical Geology and Geography of Arabia Petr&a and Palestine,

Palestine, Tex., city, county-seat of Anderson County, about 135 miles north of Houston. In the vicinity are salt mines and iron-ore deposits. The most important agricultural product is cotton, although grain, fruit and vegetables are grown. Among the manufactures are cottonseed-oil, flour, pottery, iron products and packed-beef. It has good schools, waterworks, gas and electric lights. Population 10,482.

Palestrina (pa'lAs-tre'na), Giovanni Pier-luigi da, the greatest Italian composer, was born in 1524 at Palestrina, studied at Rome and in 1551 was made musical director of the Julian chapel of St. Peter's by Pope Julius III. In 1554 he published a collection of masses and became one of the singers of the Sistine Chapel, a position which he lost upon the accession of Paul IV. But in 1555 he became choir-master of the Lateran, and in 1561 was given a similar position in St. Maria Maggiore, which he held to 1571, when he returned to the Julian Chapel. He reconstructed the musical service of the Roman church, combining musical science with art, and takes a front rank in musical history. All his numerous compositions are sacred music. He died at Rome on Feb. 2, 1594. See Life by Baini.

Pal'et (in plants). The prominent bracts associated with the inflorescence of grasses are called glumes, and those immediately about the individual flowers are called palets. See GRASS.

Pal'impsest, the name given to ancient parchments which have been used more than once for writing purposes. The conquest of Egypt by the Saracens cut off from Europe the papyrus which was used to write upon, and parchment could be had only in limited quantities. So, through the dark ages, old manuscripts were used, after removing the first writing upon them. Sometimes the writing was washed off with a sponge, and the parchment smoothed with pumice stone;

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at other times the letters were scraped away with a sharp blade. Nearly all ancient manuscripts, however, were written with an ink which could not be entirely removed, and traces of a former writing could be seen beneath the new copy. In modern times there have been various efforts to restore these ancient writings by some chemical treatment. In this way have been found copies of the Republic of Cicero, the Institutes of Gaius, a part of the Epistle to the Romans and other parts of the Old and New Testaments. The Republic of Cicero was covered by a commentary on the Psalms, written by St. Augustine. Palissy (pa'le'se'), Bernard, the great French potter, was born near Agen in 1509, and wandered as a glass and portrait

Eainter until he married and settled in aintes in 1538. While working here as a surveyor, his attention was attracted by an enameled cup, and he determined to discover the process. After 16 years of continuous labor and experiment, in which he used all his resources and burned the tables and floors for fuel, he succeeded, and, though imprisoned in 1562 as a Huguenot, he was released by royal edict and appointed "inventor of figurines" to the king. He removed to Paris in 1564, and, through the aid of Catherine dei Medici, was saved from the massacre of St. Bartholomew. From 1575 to 1584 he gave a course ot lectures on physics and natural history, demonstrating the origin of springs, the formation of fossil shells and the best method of purifying water. In 1585, however, he was again arrested as a Huguenot and imprisoned in the Bastille, where he died in 1589. See H. Morley's Palissy the Potter. Pal'las. See MINERVA. Palm, species of the great tropical family Palmacece. Palms are the tree monocotyledons, and there are more than 1,000 species. The palmetto of the Gulf States is a diminutive representative of the group. The body consists of a tall, unbranched, columnar trunk bearing at its summit a crown of immense leaves, which are pinnately or palmately veined and often splitting so as to appear lobed or Compound. The sflower clusters 'arise from the leafy crown and usually ar* very

PALMYRA PALM

large and pendent. Aside from their ornamental purposes, palms are very useful. Notable among the useful forms are the date palm with its pulpy fruit, the cocoa-nut palm with its huge seeds *ull of edible endosperm, the sago palm whose pith yields the starchy sago and the ivory palm whose hard endosperm is the vegetable ivory. Palm honey, palm-wine and palm-oil are also well-known products. The leaves and stems of many of the species are used for making hats, baskets, fans About 60 species of hardy palms are grown in California. Of our few native palms the most common is the palmetto. Palms vary in height from three to 100 feet. The palm of history and of the Bible is the date-palm, while the most prized ornamental species is the royal palm.

Pal'ma, Tomas Estrado, the first president of Cuba, was born in Bayama, Santiago de Cuba, June 9th, 1835. The son of a wealthy planter, he was educated at Havana and subsequently studied law at the University of Seville in Spain. Upon the outbreak of the Ten Years' War (1868-78) in Cuba he joined the insurgents and soon rose to the rank of general. Under the provisional Cuban government he was successively elected to the assembly, made secretary of state, and elected president. Soon after, he was captured by the Spaniards and taken prisoner to Spain, and his estates in Cuba were confiscated. Having regained his liberty, he settled in Honduras. A little later he removed to New York and opened a school for Cuban-American boys at Central Valley in Orange County. In 1895 the Cubans again rebelled and in July of the same year he was elected president of the associated Cuban clubs in the United States. After the Spanish-American War which liberated Cuba, Palma was elected the first president of the new Cuban Republic (Oct., 1901). He was inaugurated on May 2oth, 1902, and on the same day the United States relinquished all claim to jurisdiction over the internal affairs of the new nation. In 1906 another insurrection broke out, due primarily to the very feneral belief that the voice of the people ad been stifled at the polls in 1905 and that by means of pressure and intimidation President Palma had brought about his re-election. This led to the United States' interference in behalf of peace. Palma being unwilling to meet the conditions imposed and the investigation that was to follow, on September 28th, 1906, tendered his resignation and retired to his old home town of Bayama. On the following day the United States secretary of war by the authority of President Roosevelt proclaimed himself provisional governor of Cuba. He died, Nov. 4, 1908. See CUBA.

Palm'er, Alice Freeman, an active educator and social reformer, was born at

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Colesville, N. Y., in 1855, anc^ <&&& somewhat suddenly in Paris, France, in 1902. Sh/* studied at the University of Michigan, was teacher in a high school from 1876 to 1879, and in 1879 became professor of history in Wellesley College. In 1882 she became president of Wellesley College. She married Professor G. H. Palmer of Harvard University in 1887, and resigned her presidency. In 1892 she became (non-resident) dean of the Women's College at Chicago University. Mrs. Palmer was the recipient of honorary degrees from Michigan, Columbia and Union Universities.

Palmer, Erastus Dow, an American sculptor, was born at Pompey, N. Y., April 2, 1817. He was a joiner by trade, and made carvings first of animals and leaves in wood. Seeing a cameo head, he cut on a shell a portrait of his wife, and his success induced him to try working in marble. Two bas-reliefs, Morning and Evening, The Sleeping Peri, The Angel at the Sepulchre (in the cemetery at Albany), Immortality, Faith and Sappho, also bas-reliefs, are some of his best-known works. He executed busts of Alexander Hamilton, Washington Irving, Commodore Perry and others and a statue of Robert Livingstone for the state of New York, cast in bronze. The Landing of the Pilgrims, in the Capitol at Washington, is one of his largest works. He died in 1904.

Palmer, John M., a soldier and statesman of Illinois, was born at Eagle Creek, Ky., Sept. 13, 1817. He removed to Illinois when 14, and made his home at Carlinville. He was admitted to the bar in 1839. He was a state senator in 1852-5, and was prominent in the organization of the Republican party in 1856. At the outbreak of the war, he was given command of the nth 111. regiment. He became brigadier-general in the same year and major-general in 1862. He took part in the battles of New Madrid, Island No. 10, Corinth and Mur-freesboro. In Sherman's campaign in 1864 General Palmer had command of the i4th corps. In 1868 he was elected governor of Illinois by the Republican party and served two terms. He was United States senator in 1891-7. In 1896 he was the candidate for the presidency upon the ticket of the "sound money" Democrats. He died on Sept. 25, 1900.

Palmer, Ray, an American clergyman, was born at Little Compton, R. I., Nov. 12, 1808. He graduated at Yale College, and studied theology, entering upon his pastoral work at Bath, Me. Most of his life was spent at Albany, N. Y., where he was one of the most prominent clergymen of the Congregational church. He is best known by his hymns, some of which are found in nearly every church-collection, and one of which, My Faith Looks Up to Thee, is widely used and very popular. Besides many

hymns he wrote Closet Hours; Remember Me; Home, the Unlost Paradise, and Earnest-Words. He died at Newark, N. J., March 29, 1887.

Palm'erston, Henry Vis-

count, was born near Romsey, Hants, in England, on Oct. 20, 1784, and went to the University of Edinburgh in 1800, succeeded his father as viscount in 1802, and graduated from Cambridge in 1803. Of great ability, he was the candidate of the Tories from the university in 1806; he was defeated then and in 1807, but gained a seat in parliament in that year from the Isle of Wight. In 1811 he was elected from Cambridge and held his seat for 20 years, until he supported the reform bill. Then he successively represented Bletchingly, South Hampshire and Tiverton. In 1809, as a Tory, he was made junior lord of the admiralty and secretary of war, without a seat in the cabinet, and held the office until 1828. He left the Tory party in 1828 and entered the reform ranks, and under Earl Grey in 1830 became minister of foreign affairs, and as such adopted a policy which made England and France friends. He assisted in securing the independence of Belgium and in placing the thrones of Spain and Portugal on a constitutional basis. In 1841 he went out of office with the Whigs, but returned in 1846 as foreign minister and stirred up various difficulties through his policy. In 1850 a resolution of censure was introduced in the house of lords and a resolution of confidence in the lower hous«, and after a debate of four days the latter was carried. In December, 1851, Palmerston was asked to resign on account of the expression of his opinions regarding the actions of Louis Napoleon, but defeated the prime minister, Lord Russell, on the militia bill in the following February. He became home secretary in 1852 and in 1855 was made prime minister. Although his government was defeated in 1857, on an appeal to the country, it stood until February, 1858, wh<m it fell before the conspiracy bill. In June, 1859, Palmerston was made first lord of the treasury, which post he retained until his death. Among the principal events of his official career were the American Civil War, Napoleon's war with Austria and the Austro-Prussian war with Denmark. He died at his country seat, near Hatfield, Hertfordshire, Oct. 18, 1865. His prevailing characteristics were oblivion of self, ardent desire to be the head of a people, not of a political party, and intense patriotism. See Lives by Anthony Trollope and the present Duke of Argyle.

Pal'mistry, is the art or practice of telling fortunes by inspection and interpretation of the lines and marks in the palm of the hand. In the palm of the hand are recognized three large principal lines* the first, the one nearest the fingers, is called

PALMYRA

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PAMLICO

the lise ©f t3ae heart, wMch when well-defined is said to signify strong and happy affection, but when broken it denotes inconstancy; the second, the line in the middle of the hand, is the line of the head and in the same way denotes strong or weak mental faculties; the third, the line at the base of the thumb, is the line of life, and its distinctness and clearness determine the length of life and liableness to illness. These are said to represent the trinity of existence: The heart, sensation; the head, intelligence; life, action. In the palm are also slight elevations called mountains or mounts. These are named after the planets from which they receive according to their greater or less development favorable or unfavorable influences. Each has its particular significance. The mount at the base of the first finger is the mount of Jupiter and, normally developed, indicates love of honor and happy disposition; the one at the base of the middle finger is the mount of Saturn and denotes prudence and wisdom; the ring finger the mount of Apollo and denotes love of the beautiful and noble aspirations; the little finger the mount of Mercury and denotes love of science, industry and commerce; beneath Mercury the mount of Mars denotes courage and resolution; at the wrist the mount of the moon signifies a dreamy disposition and morality; at the thumb the mount of Venus denotes taste for beauty and loving temperament. Besides the lines and mounts there are squares, stars, circles, triangles, crosses, rings, points, islands, forks, branches and chains, which according to their arrangement corroborate or modify the deductions made from the interpretation of the mounts and lines. The general form of the hand and nails also has significance.

Palmistry is of great antiquity. It came from India and played am important part among the Chaldeans, Assyrians and Egyptians. The Jewish people possessed thousands of palmists. Solomon speaks of the art as having been perfected among the Hebrews. It was cultivated by such philosophers as Plato and Aristotle and was practiced in Rome. Augustus was considered an accomplished practitioner. It was of great repute in Europe in the middle ages. Cardanus is the author of what is considered the best work on the subject. It needs hardly be added that only a keenly imaginative person could hope to become a successful palmister.

Palmyra (pal-mi'ra), from 100 to 1300 A. D. a rich and beautiful city of Syria, stands in an oasis on the northern line of the Arabian desert, about 150 miles from Damascus on one side and the Euphrates on the other. It was supposed to have been founded by Solomon, but probably was a caravan station of the Arabs. Dur-

ing the wars "between Rome and Part&m the city acknowledged Roman supremacy and gained much by it, inasmuch as it was made the object of many favors by the Roman emperors. In 272 the attempt to found an independent empire was crushed by Aurelian, and it remained a Roman dependency until it submitted, with the rest of Syria, to the Moslems. It began its retrograde career in the i$th century, and now is but a city of ruins. The ancient inhabitants tanned leather, controlled the desert caravan trade, and mined salt, gold and silver. See Ruins of Palmyra by Wood and Dawkins. See ZENOBIA.

Pa'lo Al'to, Cal., a town of Santa Clara County, 30 miles from San Francisco, is the seat of a university founded by Leland Stanford in memory of his son. It is intended to provide education entirely free, from the kindergarten stage to the highest post-graduate work, with schools of law, medicine and music. Several of the building are finished in Moorish architecture of yellow sand-stone. The university, which Was opened in 1891, has a faculty of 220 instructors with about 1,747 students; has already received $20,000,000 from Senator Stanford; and has an annual income of about $600,000. The town has eight churches, well-graded public schools, a high school, Manzanita Hall (a preparatory school $ for boys) and two preparatory schools for girls. Population, 4,436. See STANFORD.

Palo Alto (pa'loal'to}, Battle of, an engagement between American troops under General Taylor and the Mexicans led by General Arista. It took place (May 8, 1846) in the woods in the southern part of Texas, about eight miles northeast of Brownsville. The battle lasted five hours, and the Americans were victorious. Palo Alto is from the Spanish, meaning Tall Timber.

Pamir (pa-merf), the center of the central Asian highland system, is a lofty plateau with an average elevation of 13,000 feet, and unites the western ends of the Himalayas and Tian Shan mountains with the Hindu-Kush. It is crossed by mountain ranges, many peaks rising to enormous heights; and although exposed to great extremes of heat and cold and to severe snow and sand storms, the Kirghiz shepherds tend their flocks there and it is often crossed by travelers. It is full of animal and bird life, and has large rivers and lakes, including Karakul, 120 square miles, and Shivakul, 100 square miles. The Pamirs are often referred to as "the roof of the world/' from their high elevation.

Famlico (ptim'U-ko) Sound, a small arm of the Atlantic Ocean on the coast of North Carolina, is separated from the ocean by long, narrow islands of sand. It is very shallow, and is about 75 miles long "by 10 to 25 wide. Pam′pas, properly the large, treeless plains of the Argentine Republic in South America. They rise in terraces from the coast to the foot of the Cordilleras, and extend about 2,000 miles long by 500 miles broad. The northeastern portion is very fertile and the pampas are used almost exclusively for grazing purposes, but the rest is barren and dry, abounding in strips of desert, the soil being of sandy clay. The level districts of Peru, 180,000 square miles in extent and covered by trees, are also called pampas.

PAMPAS GRASS

Pam′pas Grass, covering the pampas of the Argentine, is very hardy, beautiful in appearance and often used for ornament. The leaves are from six to eight feet long, and the flowering stems, with large spikes of silvery-white flowers, are from ten to 14 feet in height. The plant is now cultivated in California for the flower plumes, which are used in decorations by florists.

Pan, according to the Greek story, is considered the god of pastures, forests and flocks and is represented as having horns, a goat's beard, a crooked nose, pointed ears, a tail and goat's feet. The worship of Pan began in Arcadia, and in time extended all over Greece, reaching Athens last. He was worshiped by offerings of cows, goats, lambs, milk, honey and wine. He was also supposed to have been very fond of music, being credited as the inventor of the syrinx or pandean pipes. The Romans have identified him as their god Faunus. The story of his death, coincident with the birth of Christ, is finely treated by Milton, Rabelais, Schiller and Mrs. Browning.

Panama (păn′ȧ-mä′). A small republic comprising the narrowest part of Central America, between Costa Rica and Colombia. It formerly belonged to Colombia, but seceded in November, 1903. It is 35 miles wide, and has an area of 31,571 square miles. The population is 400,000. The isthmus is traversed by a range of mountains running between the Atlantic and the Pacific, and many streams, some of considerable size, notably the Tuira (160 miles), flow into both oceans. The trading ports are Aspinwall (or Colon) and Panama, and the exports are hides, tallow, indigo, caoutchouc, coffee, vanilla, gold-dust and tortoise shell. A railway crosses the isthmus from Colon to Pamama. The capital is Panama (population 35,500).

Panama Canal. The building of the Panama Canal may be said to be one of the greatest “military victories,” as it is the greatest engineering achievement in history.

Remarkable Triumph of Sanitary Methods and Engineering Skill. Two brilliant engineers, Wallace and Stevens, found themselves so hampered under civil administration that they resigned. It was only when the enterprise was finally placed under control of Colonel G. W. Goethals, of the United States Army, as Chief Engineer and Chairman of the Isthmian Commission, that the work moved forward with extraordinary rapidity. It involved a war against unprecedented natural difficulties, including very unhealthful conditions, and to carry on the “campaign” men and supplies had to be transported 2,000 miles. The average number of men employed was 40,000, nearly half the number in our standing army, and the total cost was approximately $375,000,000 (See Goethals (gō′thalz) and Gorgas).

The two greatest enemies to be overcome were disease—malaria and yellow fever—and the treacherous sliding soil. Under the direction of Colonel W. C. Gorgas, also of the United States Army, the Canal Zone, one of the world's worst plague spots, was transformed. Mosquito breeding pools were filled, paving and sewage systems put in, and screened eating and sleeping places provided. “Today,” says an officer of the Department of Sanitation, “healthy Americans work with vim under the hot sun and play baseball and other games. American women do housework, play tennis, ride horseback and dance enthusiastically, and their chubby little children, born and raised in Panama, play on the lawns.”

How the Great Work was Accomplished. While modern sanitary methods and an expenditure of $20,000,000 changed living conditions, the sliding soil had to be dealt with to the end. These slides were particularly troublesome in Culebra cut. Sometimes there was iron pyrites in the soil and, this being exposed, created enough heat to prematurely explode the dynamite used in excavation work. “In case the soil was heated to a dangerous extent” writes Colonel Goethals, “it was allowed to cool before loading with dynamite.”

Look at our illustrations and imagine the network of machinery in motion, the high speed cableways carrying building materials back and forth in buckets of three to five tons capacity at the rate of twenty miles an hour, the steam shovels taking up five to six tons with each scoop, 115 locomotives hauling 2,000 cars to the dumps from 1 to 33 miles away, and 21 cars, each carrying 600 tons, being cleared of their loads with plow unloaders in from four to six minutes. In this way you can form some conception of the process by which this great contribution to peace and commerce was actually accomplished in eight years, after being talked about for four centuries and attempted by the unfortunate De Lesseps, who, after six years of heavy expenditure of life, money, heroic devotion and engineering skill, found his brilliant name for a time, though unjustly, involved in the scandal of a company which failed owing nearly $370,000,000.

In 1903, 22 years after De Lesseps' little daughter turned the first spadeful of earth, the United States purchased the rights of the French Company for $40,000,000. Rejection by the Columbian senate of the treaty granting the United States the right to build the Canal led to the revolution of the district of Panama, its establishment as a republic, and the negotiation of the present treaty, which leases a zone 10 miles wide, including the cities of Panama and Colon, with their harbors excepted, in perpetuity. The lease provides for a yearly rental of $250,000 after nine years. The initial payment of $10,000,000 was made and work begun May 4, 1904.

How Ships are “Lifted” Across the Isthmus. A trip through the canal is an experience you would never forget. If you should take it at night, you would not only find the tropic air much pleasanter, but you would have the interesting experience of riding on a vessel over a grand water “boulevard” 50 miles long, and brilliantly illuminated all the way from Colon to Panama with electric lights.

If you make the passage from the Atlantic side, after a sail of seven miles through Limon Bay, you enter the first of a series of three locks. The two leaves of the great gate which have swung open to let you enter will close and lock you in while water runs into the chamber from the lock above until the water in the two is on a level. Then you will pass through two more locks, and so be raised, step by step, 85 feet.

Now the busy little electric cars which have pulled you through the locks, let go of you and you will sail at full ocean speed across Gatun Lake for 24 miles to Bas Obispo, the entrance to Culebra cut. Then comes a 9 miles' sail to Pedro Miguel where you again enter a lock and begin going “downstairs” to a small lake through which you sail for 1½ miles to Miraflores, where two more locks lower you to sea level and you pass out into the Pacific, 10 to 12 hours from the time you started.

The electricity for operating the locks, as well as for lighting the way and furnishing power for other purposes, is generated by turbines, using water from Gatun Lake. The lock gates are of steel, are 65 feet long, 7 ft. thick, from 47 to 82 ft. high, and weigh from 300 to 600 tons each. Every lock is divided by a middle wall, so that vessels going in opposite directions can pass. Between the gates at either end, as shown in one of our illustrations, is a series of intermediate gates. With these the locks are divided into smaller chambers to save time and water in handling smaller vessels. The usable length of the locks is 1,000 ft., and 95% of sea going vessels are less than 600 ft. long.

The Two Great Purposes of the Canal. The two great objects of the United States in building the canal were to place her navy in a better position to defend her coasts and to aid the world's commerce. (See Clayton-Bulwer Treaty). It is estimated that by 1915 the freight passing through the canal will amount yearly to 17,000,000 tons; and by 1925 to 27,000,000 tons. Its importance as effecting commerce with Australia and New Zealand may be judged from the fact that commerce between the United States alone and these two countries amounted in 1910 to $46,543,000 and that this was an increase of 68% over the previous decade. Of still greater importance, it is believed, will be the growth of business between the Atlantic-Gulf seaboard and the west coast of South America. For example, it will reduce the distance between New York and Callao 6,250 miles, and between New Orleans and Callao 7,245 miles.

But the greatest of all probably will be the saving in time and freight charges for shipments to and from our own coasts. The saving in distance between New York and San Francisco will be 7,873 miles, and between New Orleans and San Francisco 8,638 miles. The growth of the entire Pacific Coast with its enormously rich and relatively undeveloped resources will undoubtedly go forward with giant strides, far surpassing even its past record—a great past and a greater future, fittingly expressed in the magnificent Panama Exposition in the City of the Golden Gate.

The Climate of Panama.—The Climate of Panama is tropical, with excessive humidity. The dry season extends from January to April, the wet season from May to December. Mean annual temperature, 80°, with maximum and minimum of 89° and 76°. The hottest month of the year is May. The annual rainfall is 40 to 155 inches, depending on the locality. It is heaviest on the Caribbean coast, and decreases as the Pacific Ocean is approached. Northeast winds prevail during the greater part of the year, being strongest during the dry season. Southeast winds prevail during the wet season. (See Lock and Panama. Consult index for references to important canal systems.)

Pandora (pan-do′ra), according to the Greek legend, was the first woman on earth. When Prometheus stole the fire from heaven, Zeus caused a woman to be made to bring trouble to man, and sent her to Prometheus' brother, Epimetheus. A later story relates that Pandora possessed a box in which were all men's ills and troubles, which escaped on the box being opened. Still another story has it that the box contained all blessings, and Pandora, on opening it, allowed all to escape but hope.

Pan′golin, the name given to any one of the scaly ant-eaters belonging to the genus Manis. They are mammals, but the shape of their bodies and the presence of scales

A TRIP THROUGH THE PANAMA CANAL

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The artist here helps us to realize what a prodigious work of engineering it was to m

cut the "big ditch" across the Isthmus. The Pennsylvania Station and the Woolworth |j

Building are in New York City. The picture at the bottom gives you an idea of what m

Manhattan Island would look like if the material from the Panama Canal were built into ffi

pyramids from the Battery to Harlem. |

Notice how the "East" end of the Canal may be said to be west of the "West" end. £ Although connecting our East and West coasts, the Canal runs Northwest and Southeast. *

Here are the ocean liners climbing over the mountains by the water stairway. Actual distances not represented. (Hauling system on next page.)

J Vessels are raised or lowered by letting water into or out of each lock from the *

5f lock above through culverts D G* by means of lateral culverts E H, through wells *

J F. (A) passageway for operators, (B) gallery for electric wires, (C) drainage gallery. £

J The locomotive, the team, and the building show the size of a lock. *

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We are looking at the Gatun locks, dam and spillway. Notice the locomotives hauling the ships. The two in the rear are for keeping the vessel steady.

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Here we are inside a lock during construction. This inward slant of the great entrance gate helps it to better resist the water pressure.

Standing on the railroad track we see the gates which divide the lock into smaller chambers for handling smaller vessels.

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Now we are in the upper locks at Miraflores. Notice the culvert in center wall. Next we will have a nearer view of a central culvert.

Here we are looking through the central culvert of the Gatun upper locks. Compare its size with that of the workman.

Here we see work going on in the famous Culebra cut. Notice how the embankment is cut in terraces to enable several gangs to work at once.

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The work of many weeks destroyed by a Culebra landslide. Over 9,000,000 cubic yards, resulting from slides, were taken out in six years.

We are looking down "Bottle Alley" (Colon) before the Americans began house-cleaning." These pools bred the malaria-infected mosquito.

Can you recognize it? This is the same "Bottle Alley" nine months later. It shows what proper draining and paving methods have done.

This dredge is cutting mud out of the Chagres bottom and pumping it, through a pipe line, into a mosquito-infested swamp—two good jobs at one operation.

This is a part of the history of the Canal—French excavating machinery abandoned in 1888. Picture taken in June, 1911.

Here we have two views of the Cliagres River—near Fort San Loren/o on the rii>Iu and near Los Ilornos on the left. Notice how floods have worn the limestone.

PANICLE

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PAPEB

give them the appearance of reptiles. The scales are formed of cemented hairs. In some forms the tail is longer than the head and body. They inhabit Asia and western Africa and vary in length from one to five feet. They are burrowing animals and feed mainly on white ants.

Pan'icle, an open spray-like cluster of flowers, consisting of a compound raceme chiefly branching below. See INFLORESCENCE.

Pansy. See VIOLET.

Pan'theon, a temple dedicated to all the gods, has a great arched roof, lighted through one opening in the center of the dome. The Pantheon in Rome is the only ancient building that has been completely preserved. It (or, rather, part of it) was built by Agrippa in 27 B. C. It was consecrated as a church in 610, and is used as a burying place for eminent Italians. The Pantheon of Paris was built in 1764, and is called the Church of St. Genevieve. It also is used as the mausoleum of famous men.

Pan'ther, the name loosely applied to the leopard, but more correctly used for the stouter varieties of that animal. The puma is also called panther in America.

Paoli (f>dfo-le), Pasquale, a Corsican patriot, was born in Corsica in 1726; was taken to Naples by his father in 1739; but returned to his own country to become the leader of the struggle for independence in July, 1755. He would have suceeded but that Genoa sold Corsica to France in 1768. He held out for a year against the French, but on being defeated escaped to England, where he was given a government pension. On the breaking out of the second revolution in France he returned, became lieutenant-general and governor, and set on foot a second rebellion, hoping to form a union with England, but failed and returned to England in 1796. He died.near London, Feb. 5, 1807. See Boswell's Account of Corsica.

Paper takes its name, properly, from that which was first used hi its place and from which it was first made — Egyptian papyrus (q. v.). It was first made by laying thin slices of the cellular tissue across others, the whole moistened with Nile water and pressed, then smoothed down with ivory or shell. In our loth and nth centuries it was made of other fibrous matter. The Chinese Encyclopedia says that the Chinese first wrote on thin strips of bamboo board, but for 300 years before and after Christ silk-waste was tised. The Chinese statesman, Ts'ai Lun, was the inventor of paper made of vegetable fiber. In A. D. 105 he had paper made of bark, hemp, rags and old fishing nets. The first manufacture of rag-paper in Europe was in Spain under the Moors in 1154,but soon afterwards it was made in Italy, France and Germany. It came into universal use in the i4th century. The vegetable fibers from which paper can be made are wood, bamboo, jute, straw,, corn-stalk, flax and

hemp, besides linen and cotton rags foi white paper. The great bulk of the paper used to-day is made from wood, and of this the better grade is made by what is known as the sulphide process. It may be briefly described as follows:

The ground wood-pulp is made chiefly from spruce and has been saturated with sulphurous acid, though poplar-pulp is cooked in caustic soda. Then an ova] shaped tub whose capacity is about 1,000 pounds is fed with one part of sulphite pulp and three of ground wood-pulp. A small percentage of some mineral; saponified rosin; coloring matter; and alurn are added. This pulpy mass is thoroughly mixed, and then passes into a refining engine. After leaving the refiner, the pulp is screened. Then it is pumped on the paper-machine proper, having been so thinned that it behaves like a fluid. The paper-machine has a wet part and a drying part. The wet part forms the paper and gives it the consistency that makes it paper. The drying part increases this consistency, dries the paper and gives what is called surface. The liquefied pulp flows from a box at the head of the machine over an apron and upon an endless, horizontal, wire cloth moving forward continuously. The water in the pulp drains through the wire and the fibers settle on the wire. The fibers become so compacted that they are separated from the wire, and these compact sheets or felts are conveyed to presses, two or three in number, consisting of pairs of massive rolls. Between these passes the paper, supported, however, by endless felts of wool, because the paper can not yet support itself. After this it can, and enters the driers, 20 or 30 cylinders three or four feet in diameter, one horizontal tier of driers being above the other. The paper passes partially round each drier, going alternately from one to the other tier, and being heated by the steam that is constantly passing through the inside of the cylinders. The paper usually reaches the driers with 70% of water in it still. Then it goes through the calenders,— rolls with polished surfaces. These rolls are arranged in a stack, and the paper goes in at the top and passes out at the bottom to the reel. This, practically, is an ironing process, the regulation of the pressure between the rolls giving the paper whatever surface is desired. Light pressure leaves the surface open, but heavy pressure closes the pores. When the paper leaves the calenders and is reeled, it is considered made.

The first mill in the United States was built in 1690 where Philadelphia now stands, and to-day the paper output in America is the largest in the world, being over 4,200,000 tons a year. The Census Bulletin of Manufactures (1910) gives the folio wing figures: Number of establishments 777; wage earners 75,978; cost of materials used $165,442,341; value of pr0

PAPIER-MACHE

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PARADISE LOST

ducts $267,656,964. Over 1,241,900 tons of wood pulp were used, and 983,882 tons of paper and 357,470 tons of rags (including cotton, flax waste etc.). Next in order is England, then come France, Germany, Austria and Italy. See works on Paper and Paper Making by Hoffman, Munsell, Archer and Dunbar.

Papier-Mach£ (pa'pya'ma'sha'), a name applied to paper pulp, pressed and treated to resemble wood or plaster. Articles made of the pressed-pulp or of sheets of paper pasted together on a mold were first made in Persia and Kashmir in the shape of small cases, boxes and trays. In Japan helmets were often made in the same way. In the 18th century Martin began the manufacture of peculiarly varnished papier-mache' snuffboxes in France, and in 1772 Henry Clay, an Englishman, received a patent for the preparation of sheets pasted together, forming door-panels, tables, cabinets and trays. The tray of sheets is formed on the mold, heated and dipped into a mixture of linseed oil and tar, then placed in the stove and afterward planed and filed. Then it is given several coats of tar and lampblack, after which it is varnished and polished by hand. The papier-mache' combination has been used for doors, water-pails and even for car-wheels with success. Pappenheim (pap'pen-him), Gottfried Heinrich, Count von, a great imperialist general in the Thirty Years' War, was born on May 29, 1594, at Pappenheim, Bavaria^ and at 20 went over to the Roman church. He served under the king of Poland against the Russians and the Turks, and then joined the Catholic league, defeating the Bohemians at Prague in 1620. Again in the Austrian service, he (1626) suppressed the peasant revolt, in which 40,000 peasants died, and then fought against the Danes, Swedes and Saxons of the Protestant league. At Ltitzen (1632) he arrived in time to save Wallen-stein from defeat by the Swedes, but was mortally wounded in the second charge and

died at Leipsic, Nov. 17, 1632, pleased that Gus-tavus Adolphus had died just before him.

Pap'pus (in plants), the nighly modified calyx of the flowers of the Composite. As the flowers are epigynous (which see), the pappus appears to rise from the summit of the seed-like fruit (akene), and occurs in a great

variety of forms. Sometimes it is a tuft oJ delicate hairs, as in the thistle and dandelion ; sometimes two or more tooth-like and often barbed processes, as in tick-seed, beggar's ticks and Spanish needles; sometimes beautifully plumose bristles, as in the blazing star; sometimes simply a cup or crown; and sometimes wanting altogether. In general, the pappus is developed to aid in the transportation of the akenes by wind or animals.

Papua (pap'ob-d). See NEW GUINEA.

Papy'rus, a species of the genus Cyperus, which belongs to the sedge family, and contains over 600 species distributed throughout the temperate and tropical regions. The papyrus is C. papyrus, and is native to Egypt and Palestine. It is of interest in connection with its ancient use by the Egyptians. "The pith-like tissues of the larger flowering stems, cut into thin strips, united by narrowly overlapping margins, and then crossed, under pressure, by a similar arrangement of strips at right angles, constituted the papyrus of antiquity." It is commonly cultivated in aquaria or in damp soil. The stem is tall and stout, from four to eight feet in height, and bearing at the summit a rosette of drooping leaves. It scarcely occurs in Egypt now, but grows at Syracuse, Sicily. See PAPER.

Para* (pd-raf}t a city of Brazil, is 70 miles from the mouth of the river Para*. It has a fine harbor, sheltered by wooded islands, which admits large vessels. It is closely built, with narrow streets, well-shaded by mangoes and palms. It has street-cars and telephones, and among its public buildings are a theater, custom house and cathedral. Here are the headquarters of the Amazonian Steamboat Company, which has most of the Amazon River trade, supplying the interior towns with foreign goods and exporting india-rubber, cacao and Brazil nuts. The rubber exported from Para in 1898 amounted to 22,218 tons. Para" also is a state or district with an area of 443,903 square miles and a population of 445,356. Consult Around South America by*" Vincent. See AMAZON and BRAZIL.

Par'adise Lost. This is the principal poem of John Milton (q. v.) and is universally regarded as one of the greatest masterpieces ever produced, ranking with the Iliad the Odyssey, the 'Mneid, the Divina Corn-media and Faust. It was published in 1667, and was composed after Milton had become blind and had retired from political life. From the sale of the poem its author realized ten pounds and his widow eight pounds in addition. Paradise Lost is an epic in twelve books. It deals with the Biblical account of the fall of man, and proposes to reveal the divine purpose that governed that tragedy. Milton describes Satan, the fallen angel and his legions in hell. Instead of struggling again for the mastery of heaven, they decide to attempt to corrupt the newly created

Two forms of pappus (p) borne dt the summit of akenes (f).

PARAFFIN

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PARAGUAY

Adam and Eve. Satan undertakes this task, and, since God permits, he succeeds, although man is warned of the danger by Michael, the archangel, who relates to Adam and Eve the history of Satan and his expulsion from heaven. Adam and Eve eat the apple and fall into wretched quarrels and despair. They are expelled from Paradise, but are comforted by the revelation of the redemption of man through Christ. The poem contains many elaborate and abstruse theological discussions, and is characterized by the most erudite scholarship. These qualities make it tedious to many, but, on the other hand, majestic descriptions and brilliant imagery abound, and the grandeur of the style is everywhere sustained. Matthew Arnold commends it to English readers as our best example of the classic or grand style.

Paraffin (par'af-ftn), the name given by Baron Reichenbach to a white, transparent substance obtained by him from wood-tar in 1830. Christison, an English chemist, obtained the same substance about the same time from petroleum and called it petroline, and Dumas, the French chemist, obtained it from coal-tar in 1835. Not until 1850, however, was it manufactured, and it is now used almost entirely for the making of candles and in some branches of the arts and surgery. It is made largely from petroleum shale by the following process: The shale is broken and placed in a retort, is then distilled and treated with chemicals, after which it is cooled. The paraffin separates as a solid, and the heavy oil mixed with it is pressed out. Then the crude paraffin is treated with naphtha, and the naphtha removed by further pressing after it has cooled. The paraffin is then melted and allowed to run through filters into convenient shapes. Paraffin is obtained also from mineral wax a;.d from the higher boiling portion of ordinary petroleum (q.v.).

Paraguay (p&'rd-gwi or par'd-gwa), a republic of South America, is divided by the river of the same name into eastern Paraguay or Paraguay proper and western or Chaco Paraguay. The eastern part is bounded on the north by Apa and Estrella Rivers, on the east by Amanbay Mountains and Parana River and on the south by the same river. The boundaries of western Paraguay have not been fully determined. The total area is about 98,000 square miles, and the population, made up of white descendants of the Spanish, of 50,000 Indians, of negroes and of mixtures of all, is 752,000.

Surface and Climate. The Amanbay range runs north and south and divides the basins of the Paraguay and Parana^ whose small tributaries frequently overflow. The northern portion of the country is hilly, broken by palm-dotted plains, but the southern part is one of the most fertile

regions of South America. The climate is semitropical. The summer months of December, January and February have a mean temperature of 80.56°, autumn (March, April and May) 72.23°; winter (June, July and August) 64.7°; and spring (September, October and November) 72.7°. Rainfall is abundant, averaging 52.44 inches at Asuncion, and is heaviest during the summer.

The Paraguay Central, 155 miles long, is the only railway. Parana and Paraguay Rivers, with their interlines, afford water transportation from all parts of the country to the sea. Asuncion enjoys direct communication with France, and a Buenos Aires-New York steamship line provides monthly service from Buenos Aires to Asuncion and is about to extend it to Matto Grosso in Brazil. There are 1,130 miles of telegraph.

Cities. The chief cities are Asuncion, the capital, chief port and commercial center, population 84,000; Villa Rica, population 26,000; and Concepcion, population 15,000.

Resources. Paraguay has a wide area of rich agricultural land, producing corn, coffee, rice, cocoa, indigo, tobacco, manioc and sugarcane. The great forests furnish logwoods, india-rubber and yerba mate, a shrub known as Paraguay tea, which is in general use in South America; also a great variety of woods, many of which are exported. On the grazing lands there are 5,500,000 cattle, 214,060 sheep, 190,416 horses, mules and asses. The 1910 record shows total exports of nearly $5,000,000 during the year. There are deposits of gold, copper, iron ore and other minerals, but they have not been developed.

Government. The president is elected for four years and is ineligible for a succeeding term. There are two houses of Congress, a cabinet, a supreme court, two courts of appeals and minor courts.

History. The country was discovered by Juan Diaz de Solis in 1515, and the first colony founded by Mendoza in 1535, who built Asuncion and subjected Paraguay to Peru. It fell into the hands of the Jesuits, who administered its affairs until 1768, when they were expelled. In 1810 it declared its independence and elected a dictator, who held office from 1814 to 1840. Under the new constitution of 1844 Don Carlos was elected president and was succeeded by his son in 1862. This son led the war with Brazil, Argentina and Uruguay, and was killed in battle, March i, 1870. A new constitution, providing for two houses of Congress, was proclaimed on Nov. 25, 1870, upon which was begun the new presidential term of four years. At Asuncion there is, besides a state college, an agricultural school and model farm. See History of Paraguay by Washburn and Vincent's Around South America.

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Paraguay, a river of South America, rises in the Brazilian state of Matto Grasso, and flows southwesterly into the Parana. Its largest tributaries are the Jauru, Cuyaba, Tacuary, Mondego, Aoa, Pilcomayo and Vermejo. The river is 1,800 miles long, and is navigable to the mouth of the Cuyaba. It was declared open in 1852, and now has steamers running upon it, carrying mail from Rio Janeiro to Cuyaba". At its outlet the ParaM (q. v.), with its tributaries, forms the large estuary of Rio de la Plata (q. v.).

Parallax (par'al-laks}, an optical and astronomical term used to denote the change in direction of an object due to a change in the position of the observer. This phenomenon is, perhaps, most easily observed in viewing a landscape from a railway train. When one's attention is concentrated upon any point in the landscape, all the more distant points appear to move in the same direction as the train, while the nearer points appear to move in a direction opposite that of the train. Thus, as the observer continually changes his position, being on the moving train, the direction of the point to which his attention is directed is continually changing. In the same way, if one could suddenly step from Chicago to New York on any moonlight night, the position of the moon among the fixed stars would also suddenly change. Since the earth is rotating and carrying the observer with it, the position of the moon or of one of the planets among the fixed stars depends upon the hour of the day at which the observation is made as well as upon the latitude and longitude of the observer. Accordingly, astronomical observations of this kind are all "reduced" to the center of the earth; that is, the position of a heavenly body is given as that which it would appear to have for an observer situated at the center of the earth. Parallax of this kind is called diurnal. There also is a parallax due to the motion of the earth in its orbit about the sun; this is known as annual parallax, because it goes through all its changes in the course of one year. The principle of parallax is one of great usefulness in adjusting certain optical instruments and in making certain optical measurements. See Young's General Astronomy.

Paramaribo (pdrfa-mdrfi-bo}, the capital of Dutch Guiana, lies on the Surinam, about ten miles from its mouth. It has broad streets, 'wooden houses, a governor's palace, a court of justice, two forts and a park. Almost all the trade of Dutch Guiana (q. v.} is centered here. Population 34,085.

Parana (fa'ra-naf), a large South American river, rises as the Rio Grande about 100 miles northwest of Rio de Janeiro. Flowing northwest and west, it unites with the Paranahyba, and receives its name and flows southwest and south to the point where it is joined by the Paraguay. It then

flows thr©ugh Argentina, uniting with the Uruguay to form Rio de la Plata. Its total length is nearly 2,000 miles, and it drains over 1,100,000 square miles of territory. Its longest tributaries are those named and the Mogy Guassu, Tiet6 Parana-panema, Ivahy, Iguassu and Salado. It is navigable for 705 miles, and has rapids over 100 miles in length immediately above the junction with the Iguassu. Parana also is a state of Brazil with an area of 85,430 square miles and population of 250,000.

Parasites (p&r'a-sits), among plants those which obtain food by attacking living plants or animals. The majority of parasitic plants are fungi (which see). Many of them have cultivated a very selective habit, restricting themselves to certain plants or animals or even to certain organs. Some of the highest plants are also parasitic, as, for example, the dodder, whose thread-like body is often seen enwrapping tall herbs like skeins of yellow yarn; and the mistletoe, growing in tufts on the branches of trees. In every case the plant or animal attacked is called the host. Sometimes the attacks are harmless, but often they are very destructive. The results of the most destructive parasites have come to be spoken of as diseases, and among them are some of the common contagious diseases. Among animals representatives of almost any class or order may be parasitic. Many of the parasites are insects; some are parasites of other insects, some of vertebrates. Parasites may serve as hosts to lesser parasites. Some in their earlier stages live within their host, some OP the host. The parasite frequently destro3/s its host. Numbers of insects injurious to vegetation are held in check by parasites that destroy eggs and larvae; the chalcis flies are parasitic upon grain weevils, the destructive scale insects have for enemies various internal parasites. A common and troublesome parasite is the bot-fly, pest of horses. Lice are thoroughly parasitic. So are many families of worms.

Parcel Post. Under an act approved August 24, 1912, and effective January i, 1913, the United States post office department began carrying parcels of fourth class matter not exceeding n pounds in weight nor larger than 72 inches in length and girth combined. Fourth class matter includes all matter not embraced in other classes. (See POST OFFICE.) The country is divided into eight zones, and the rates from any given point are graded from sc. to i2c. for the first pound, and Jc to i2c for additional pounds, according to the zone to which parcels are shipped.

After the passage of the act, Postmaster General Burleson increased the limit to 50 Ibs. in the first two zones and reduced the rates for the first pound and additional pounds as follows: 3rd zone 6c-2c; 4th zone 70-40; 5th zone 8c-6c; 6th zone 9C-8c; on books weighing 8 ozs. or less, the rate is ic per 2 ozs.

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t Pare (pa'rtt}, Ambroise, the first practitioner of modern surgery, was born at Laval, France, abou, the beginning of the i6th century, and received his training at the Hdtel Dieu in Paris. In 1536 he joined the army, going to Italy as surgeon, and in a later campaign improved the treatment of gunshot wounds by tying the broken arteries, instead of burning them with a red-hot iron after amputation, and made many other changes. In 1552 he became surgeon to Henry II, and afterwards to Charles IX and Henry III. His principal writings, Five Books of Chir-urgy, have been a great aid to modern surgeons. He died at Paris, Dec. 22, 1590. See his Life by Paulmier.

Parenchyma (pd-re%~k%-md), the tissue in plants whose cells have thin walls, their three dimensions being approximately equal. They are the working-cells of a plant, as distinct from the mechanical tissues. Parenchyma is the original tissue of every plant, and by its various modifications new tissues arise. Ordinary pith is a good illustration of dead and empty parenchyma cells.

Parent=Teacher Associations. The National Congress of Mothers, organized in 1897, in Washington, had for its object the formation of Parent-Teacher Associations to effect cooperation between parents and teachers in the education and welfare of the child. Membership in these associations includes the poorest as well as the most noted women in the country. Associations are formed in connection with different school grades, thus bringing together women whose children are of about the same age. Men and women of national reputation are officers and members of the Advisory Council and the movement has the endorsement and backing of the leading educators of the country. Active associations exist in New York, Chicago and other cities throughout the country and there are state branches in thirty states.

The National Congress of Mothers which is made up of Parent-Teacher Associations supplies educational material and programs for use of the Associations. It includes on its Educational Committee the leaders in child study in the United States. This is the strongest child-welfare movement in the world, numbering upwards of 100,000 parents in membership and steadily increasing. The Parents Educational Union and like organizations in England are doing a similar work on a much more limited scale.

The movement has succeeded in enlisting all denominations in its work and has the co-operation of the Religious Education Association, the International Kindergarten Union and the National Education Association. Its founders were Mrs. Theodore W. Birney of Washington and Mrs. Phoebe A. Hearst. MRS. FREDERIC SCHOFF, President National Congress of Mothers and Parent-Teacher A ssociations.

(Helpful articles in THE STUDENT'S on the teaching and training of children will be found listed under Pedagogy.)

Par'is, the capital of France and the second city in Europe, is situated on the Seine, about no miles from its ntouth. It is the seat of the French senate and chamber of deputies, the executive of the president of the republic and the ministry and the legations of the foreign nations. The local or civic administration is the municipal council of Paris, a body of 80 members. It is the center of a network of rivers, canals and railroads. It is divided into two parts by the river, and surrounded by a range of hills from two to five miles distant. The fortifications consist of a rampart over 22 miles in length, with 57 gates, which it took 20 years to build, and beyond are 16 forts. The houses are built of a light-colored limestone, six or seven stories high, each floor making a distinct dwelling. Some of the finest streets are Rue de Rivoli, Rue de Faubourg, St. Hon-ore and Rue Royale. The boulevards, broad streets extending in a semicircle on the right side of the Seine, are lined with trees, seats and stalls, while restaurants, shops and places of amusement succeed each other for miles. The city has many beautiful squares, called places, among the finest being the Place de la Concorde, the Place de la Bastille, Place Venddme, Place de TEtoile, Place de 1'Opera and Place Royale. In Place de la Concorde is the obelisk of Luxor, brought from Egypt, 73 feet high and covered with hieroglyphics. Here also was the site of the guillotine during the Revolution of 1789. On Place Vend6me stands Napoleon's column of victory. There are a number of fine triumphal arches in Paris: the Porte St. Denis, erected by Louis XIV, is adorned with bas-reliefs representing his victories, and the Arc de PEtoile (Arch of the Star), begun by Napoleon in 1806 and costing $2,000,000, has the names of 384 generals and 96 victories inscribed on its walls. Ten avenues lead from this arch, one of them, the Avenue Bois de Boulogne, bordered by gardens and leading to Bois de Boulogne Park, considered one of the finest streets in the world. Another fine avenue, more like a park than a street, is the Champs Elysees (Elysian Fields). Other noted avenues are Boulevards St. Michel, St. Germain, Haussman and Sebastopol; while other prominent buildings are the Hdtel de Ville, Hotel des Invalides, Palais de Justice, Palais Royal, Palais Bourbon, Palais de Luxembourg and the Palais de rElysee, the latter the presidential residence.

The Seine is crossed by over 30 bridges, which communicate with spacious quays planted with trees, affording fine walks along the banks of the river. Of these bridges the recently-constructed Alexander III bridge cost over $1,000,000.

The Louvre, the finest modern palace in Paris, is built on the site of an old castle of

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the 13th century and is connected with the palace of the Tuileries by a great picture-gallery. It is filled with sculptures, paintings and collections of Greek, Roman and Egyptian antiquities. The Tuileries was burned by the Commune during the siege of Paris. The Palais Royal, the palace of the Luxembourg, the H6tel de Ville, the Palais de Justice and the old prison of the Concier-gerie are all noted buildings. The Cathedral of N6tre Dame, begun in the 12th century, is one of the finest specimens of Gothic architecture in the world. The Sainte Chapelle was built by Saint Louis to contain the crown of thorns and a piece of the true cross, brought by him from the Holy Land. St. Germain des Pres, finished in 1163 and probably the most ancient church in Paris, contains the tomb of St. Geneyieve, the patron saint of Paris The Madeleine, the Panth6on and 1'Oratoire are some of the best known of the modern churches. The Grand Opera is one of the most sumptuous of continental theaters: other theaters are the Od6on, Theatre Francais and the Theatre Italien. ^

The institutions connected with the University of France are in the Latin quarter of the city. There are found the Sorbonne, with its lecture-rooms, class-rooms and large library open to the public; the College of France; and a large number of colleges, ly-ceums and schools of engineering, roads and bridges, charts, fine arts etc.; and also the observatory and botanical gardens. The National Library has the largest collection of printed books in the world. The art-galleries and historical collections of the Louvre, historical museum, Hdtel Cluny, the palace of fine arts and the museum of artillery are among the richest collections in Europe. (See LIBRARIES.)

The business of .Paris is largely in articles of luxury, as jewelry, bronzes, artistic furniture, gloves, watches and perfumery. It is a great financial center, the Bank of France having the privilege of issuing all the banknotes in France, and the mint being located here. Paris is divided into 20 districts, each of them under a mayor of its own, governed by the prefect of the Seine, appointed by the government, and by a council elected by the people.

Paris is named after the Parisii, a tribe of Gauls whose collection of mud huts stood upon its site when conquered by the Romans. In 53 B. C Lutetia, as it was then called, was an important Roman town; an amphitheater of that period, capable of holding 10,000 people, has been laid bare by excavations. In the 4th century the city was called Paris, and in the 6th century it was chosen by Clovis as the seat of government, though it did not permanently become the capital of France until the loth century. In the reign of Philip Augustus (1180-1223) Paris, next to Constantinople, was the greatest city in Europe; with its university at-

tracting crowds of students, its churches of N6tre Dame (partly built) and Sainte Chapelle and the castle of the Louvre, the citadel of Paris. Louis XI, Henry IV and Louis XIV improved the city, organizing its police, drainage and sewerage systems, public schools and charities. Napoleon not only removed the marks of the terrible destruction of the Revolution, but built up the city on a grander scale, with new bridges, streets, squares, arches and public gardens, spending on its restoration more than $2,-000,000 in 12 years. Yet as late as 1834 the gutters ran through the middle of the streets; there were scarcely any side pavements; and the city was lighted by oil-lamps suspended on cords across the streets Modern Paris owes its beauty to Napoleon III. Under the direction of Haussmann his plans were carried out, broad, straight streets were built through the labyrinth of dark and narrow ones, boulevards constructed connecting all the public squares, and in place of the old houses in the heart of the town, torn down to make way for his improvements, a new city was built. Water was freely supplied, and trees and gardens and fountains sprang up everywhere, making Paris one of the greenest and shadiest of modern cities. In 1867, when the International Exhibition opened, and especially in 1900, when another exposition was held, Paris was the most splendid city in Europe. The siege of Paris by the Germans in 1870, followed by the terrible destruction made by the Commune, destroyed many of the finest buildings and historical monuments that can never be replaced. Under the republic new streets have been opened; the Champs de Mars (Field of Mars) changed into a beautiful garden, in which rises Eiffel Tower; a system of city railroads planned which connects the railroad stations with the heart of the city; and the deepening of the Seine will make Paris a seaport and do much to make it a center of the world's commerce Beyond the city's fortifications there are many resorts which the visitor to Paris should see, especially St. Cloud and Versailles, together with the Bois de Vincennes and the Bois de Boulogne; while interest will be found in a visit, within the city's environs, to the Cem-'etery of Pere la Chaise. Population 2,888,-110 or, including suburbs, 3,000,000. See Paris in Old and Present Times by Hamer-ton; Hare's Paris; Baedeker's Guidebook to Paris; and Reynolds-Ball's Paris in its Splendour.

Paris, a Greek legendary character, sometimes called Alexander, was the second son of Priam and Hecuba, king and queen of Troy. Before his birth his mother dreamed that she was to bear a firebrand which would burn the city. So his father took him tr Mount Ida, where he was found after five days by Agelaus, a shepherd, after having been fed by a bear. He became reconciled to his father and afterward was made umpire by Juno, Minerva and Venus as to which goddess was entitled to the golden apple of discord. Venus bribed him by offering him the most beautiful woman as a wife and he decided in her favor. He carried away Helen, the wife of Menelaus, and caused the Trojan War. In it he killed Achilles, and was himself wounded by a poisoned arrow from which he died. See Tennyson's Œnone.

Paris, Tex., a city, county-seat of Lamar County, having the service of four railroads. The county court-house is a magnificent building, and the government court-house and postoffice are also noteworthy. The leading industries are cottonseed-oil mills, a cotton oil refinery, flour mills, an iron foundry, candy, mattress and broom factories and woodworking establishments. Paris has an exceptionally fine public school system, its high school being affiliated with the University of Texas. It has several churches, all modern improvements and a population of 11,269.

Paris, Count de (Louis Philippe Albert d'Orléans), a descendant of the French Bourbons, son of the Duc d'Orléans, grandson of King Louis Philippe and claimant to the throne of France. He was born at Paris, Aug. 24, 1838; educated in England; and acquired considerable military experience during the Civil War in America as a member of the staff of Gen. George B. McClellan. He married in 1864 his cousin, the daughter of the Duc de Montpensier, by whom he had six children. He was admitted to the National Assembly in 1871, at the close of the Franco-Prussian War; and that body voted the restitution of the property of his family. In 1873 he acknowledged the Comte de Chambord as the representative of the royal house of France, but on the death of that person in 1883 he united in himself the claims of both branches of the Bourbon claimants and was forced to leave France in 1886 by reason of the expulsion act. After this he lived in England in retirement until his son tried in 1890 to enlist in the French army in violation of the law of exile. This being detected, some excitement was caused by the apparent revival of his claims. His printed works are two: one the History of the Civil War in America and the other the Condition of the English Workman. He died at Stowe House, Buckinghamshire, England, Sept. 8, 1894.

Park, Mungo, an African traveler, was born in Scotland, Sept. 20, 1771. He became assistant surgeon on the Worcester and on his return offered his services to the African Association and sailed from England, May 22, 1795. After learning the Mandingo language at Pisania he set out, but soon fell into the hands of a Moorish king, who made him prisoner, but from whom he escaped in 1796. He wrote an account of his travels in a work, Travels in the Interior of Africa. In 1799 he married at Selkirk, but the life of a country surgeon was too quiet for him, so in 1805 he sailed for the Niger country, in Africa, on behalf of the government. His account of the second voyage was published in 1815, and has been of much value to subsequent explorers. See Joseph Thomson's Mungo Park.

Par′ker, Col. Sir Gilbert, M. P., Anglo-Canadian novelist and since 1900 English member of Parliament, was born in Canada, Nov. 23, 1862, and educated at Trinity University, Toronto, from which he holds the degree of D. C. L. He was trained to journalism in Australia, whither he proceeded in 1886 when in indifferent health, and there first began his literary and powerful dramatic work. This consisted of an adaptation of Goethe's Faust for the stage, a drama entitled The Vendetta and a book of travel—Around the Compass in Australia. Removing to England, he there entered on an active and successful literary career in writing stories and novels of French Canada and the Canadian Northwest and doing for the romantic side of Canadian life what Kipling has done for England. His subsequent work deals with life in Egypt and the Channel Islands. Sir Gilbert is an ardent Imperialist. His novels include Pierre and his People, Mrs. Falchion, The Trespasser, When Valmond Came to Pontiac, The Seats of the Mighty, which has also been dramatized, The Pomp of the Lavilattes, The Battle of the Strong, The Right of Way, The Trail of the Sword, The Translation of a Savage, Donovan Pasha, A Ladder of Swords, a play, The Wedding Day, and a History of Old Quebec. His latest novel, The Weavers, appeared in 1907, and is a romance of England and Egypt.

Parker, Horatio. Composer and professor of music at Yale University; born at Auburndale, Mass., September 15, 1863. After the early lessons of his mother he studied with Emery, Orth and Chadwick in Boston and later with Rheinberger in Munich. His versatility is apparent in the long list of works from his pen ranging from songs and piano pieces to oratorios and symphonies. Among his more important compositions are Hora Novissima, A Wanderer's Psalm, The Legend of St. Christopher and an organ concerto. Professor Parker has received the honorary degrees of M. A. from Yale and of Mus. Doc. from Cambridge University, England.

Parker, Theodore, a great American preacher, was born, Aug. 24, 1810, at Lexington, Mass., and graduated from Harvard Divinity School in 1836, and the next year became a Unitarian minister at West Roxbury. He was somewhat separated from the conservative Unitarians, as shown by his The Transient and Permanent in Christianity and his Discourses of Matters pertaining to Religion, followed by Sermons of the Times, all of which attracted widespread notice and comment. He lectured throughout the country and became an ardent antislavery agitator. He died at Florence, Italy, on May 10, 1860.

Par′kersburg, W. Va., the capital of Wood County, at the junction of the Ohio and the Little Kanawha River, 12 miles southwest of Marietta, O., and 95 miles below Wheeling, W. Va. It is on the lines of the Baltimore and Ohio, the Baltimore and Ohio Southwestern and the Ohio railroad. The region about is rich in oil and natural gas, and has a considerable trade in petroleum as well as in lumber. Its industries include oil refineries, iron foundries, boiler and machine shops, barrel factories, lumber mills, chemical works, flour mills, breweries, veneer works and furniture factories. It has an extensive trade in manufactured goods, farm products and coal. It has many public buildings, with a fine postoffice, courthouse, St. Joseph's hospital, Washington high and public grade schools, churches, banks etc. Population 18,926.

Park′hurst, Rev. Charles Henry, an American Presbyterian clergyman, was born in 1842 at Framingham, Mass. He attended Amherst College and several German universities. Mr. Parkhurst is very well-known as a forceful and practical preacher. Since 1880 he has been pastor of the Madison Square Presbyterian Church, New York City. He became in 1891 president of the Society for the Prevention of Crime; and his attacks upon the corruption which had gained ground in the police department led in 1894 to a senatorial investigation, which resulted in a movement toward reform. Dr. Parkhurst has published a number of religious works, which often have a prominent social and even political side. Among these are The Pattern in the Mount; Three Gates on a Side; The Question of the Hour; The Fellowship of Suffering; Our Fight with Tammany; What would the World be Without Religion? The Sunny Side of Christianity; and Guarding the Cross with Krupp Guns.

FRANCIS PARKMAN

Park′man, Francis, an eminent American historian, was born at Boston, Mass., Sept. 16, 1823. He graduated at Harvard in 1844, and after studying law two years made a journey to explore the Rocky Mountains. His life among the Dakota Indians and other tribes was full of hardships, from the effects of which he suffered all the remainder of his life. His first publication was an account of this journey, called The Oregon Trail. His historical writings have been chiefly connected with the French power in America, beginning with The Conspiracy of Pontiac, (in historical order the latest), published in 1851. After visiting France in 1858 to study French documents on the subject, he wrote Pioneers of France in the New World; Jesuits in North America; Lasalle and the Discovery of the Great West; The Old Régime in Canada; Count Frontenac and New France under Louis XIV; Montcalm and Wolfe; and A Half-Century of Conflict. This large amount of historical writing, done at great disadvantage from defective eyesight and feeble health, has been carefully and accurately worked out, his first visit to France being followed by several others for purposes of research. His literary style is picturesque and fascinating. He died at Jamaica Plain, near Boston, Nov. 8, 1893.

Par′liament, the name given in England to the national assembly and meaning a gathering for discussion, from the French word parler “to talk.” It consists of two bodies, called the house of lords and the house of commons. The house of lords is composed of the lords spiritual or the clergy, represented by the archbishops of Canterbury and York and 32 bishops; and of the lords temporal, who represent the noble families of England, Scotland, Ireland and Wales. The titles used are duke, marquis, earl, viscount and baron, and they are commonly called peers. The crown has the right to make new peers in addition to those who inherit their titles. In 1907 there were 616 peers on the roll of the house of lords. The chief officer of the house of lords is the chancellor or keeper of the great seal, who acts as speaker but does not keep order. The house of commons consists of members elected by the people, representing counties, towns and the universities. The larger counties and towns (or boroughs) art divided into districts, each one being entitled to a representative. There are 670 members in the house of commons, 30 from Wales, 72 from Scotland, 103 from Ireland and 465 from England. The chief officer of the house of commons is the speaker, chosen by the members. The members receive no salary, but have certain privileges. Parliament is called or dismissed by the government, but by law there cannot be more than three years between the closing of one parliament and the calling of a new one, and no parliament can hold its sessions longer than seven years. The decisions of Parliament cannot be changed by any court of law. The houses of parliament are in Westminster, a part of London. The acts of Parliament must receive the approval of the reigning sovereign, which is obtained through the ministers or members of the cabinet council. The royal assent has been given to every bill which has passed the two houses since the time of Queen Anne. The name dates to the 13th century, and the conflicts between the people and the throne, which have gradually increased the powers of Parliament, are the chief theme of English history.

Par′ma, an Italian town, the former capital of the duchy of Parma, lies on the River Parma, 12½ miles from the Po, on the Emilian road. The town is still surrounded by walls and is guarded by a citadel. Of more than 60 churches the most noted are the cathedral, the baptistry, Madonna della Steccata and St. John the Evangelist. Other notable buildings are the ducal palaces, library, university, music-school and museum. The principal manufactures are pianos, silks, cast-iron goods, woolens, earthenware, paper and soap. A state university, founded in 1502, has its seat here, with 695 students. Population 49,340.

Parnas′sus, a mountain in Phocis, Greece, upon whose highest peak (8,036 feet) occurred the worship of Bacchus. The mountain was the seat of Apollo and the muses, and at its base lay the seat of the oracle of Delphi and the fountain of Castalia.

Par′nell, Charles Stewart, an Irish statesman, was born on June 28, 1846, at Avondale, Wicklow County, educated at Yeovil and Cambridge, and in 1874 became high sheriff of his county. In 1875 he entered Parliament for County Meath as a home-ruler, and in 1877-8 became notable as an obstructionist. In 1879 he was elected president of the Irish National Land League, and in 1880 visited the United States, making speeches in behalf of the movement and collecting $350,000 in its aid. Parnell's opposition to the coercion bill caused him to be ejected from the house of commons, and the passage of the land bill almost deprived him of power. On Oct. 13, 1881, Gladstone put him in Kilmainham jail, where he remained until released through the aid of Captain O'Shea, May 2, 1882. After the Land League was declared illegal, the national league arose from its disruption, and Parnell was elected president and began to manœuvre to throw his parliamentary strength to the conservative side. Failing in this, he carried 86 votes to the liberals. To a great extent Gladstone's views on home-rule had changed, and this brought Parnell politically close to him, but they together failed to carry the home-rule bill. Thereux on the London Times printed its series of incriminatory articles, which caused the famous trial of 128 days, in which Parnell was cleared. He was now immensely popular and powerful, but the presentation of the freedom of the city of Edinburgh was quickly followed by disgrace on the publication of the application for divorce by Captain O'Shea, in which Parnell was made co-respondent. A decree was entered on Nov. 17, 1890. Some time after Parnell married Mrs. O'Shea. He, however, never regained political power, and died at Brighton, England, Oct. 6, 1891. See The Parnell Movement by T. P. O'Connor and England under Gladstone by Justin H. M'Carthy.

Pa′ros, one of the largest islands of the Greek Archipelago, in the Cyclades division, is of pyramidal shape, and has an area of about 64 square miles and a population of nearly 7,000, of whom its capital, Parikia, contains 2,300. Its exports are wine, wool and figs, and the quarries of celebrated Parian marble near the top of Mt. St. Elias are still worked.

Parrhasius (păr-rā′shĭ-ŭs), a great painter of ancient Greece, lived in Athens, as early as the 4th century B. C. He excelled in design, accuracy, force and expression, and was said to be as vain and proud as he was talented.

Par′rish, Maxfield, an American artist, was born at Philadelphia in 1870. As an illustrator, he is known by magazine covers and posters. He designs in elaborately detailed ground or background, flat tints and strong but delicate outline. His illustrations to Mother Goose in Prose were signally successful.

Par′rot, a tropical bird, with short, hooked bill, thick fleshy tongue and usually brilliant plumage, the foot distinguished by the first and fourth toes pointing backward and the second and third forward. The family is a large one, embracing over five hundred species. It includes macaws, cockatoos, true parrots and parrakeets. Parrots live usually in flocks, either in forests or on grassy plains. Their food is mainly vegetable, consisting of fruits, seeds, buds, leaves and flowers. In South America are found the greatest number of species; in Europe there are none, but one species exists in the United States. There are only a few in Asia and Africa; some very curious ones occur in New Zealand and Australia. In New Zealand is found the kea, a bird able to kill a sheep. Its feet are large and strong. The macaws, found only in South America, are the largest parrots, brilliantly colored and conspicuous objects in the tropical forests in which they dwell. But, though the feathers are so fine, parrots' voices are anything but fine. They are sometimes taught a few words, and are sometimes kept as pets, in spite of their persistence in screaming and their vicious habit of biting. Cockatoos as a rule are snow-white and wear striking crests. They are found in the Philippines, the Celebes, Australia and the Malay Archipelago. These birds make most satisfactory pets, being of kindly disposition and taking readily to training and speech. Parrakeets are dainty in size and form; unlike most members of the order, they have long, pointed tails. The Carolina parrakeet is found in this country; once it had an extended range here,

PARROTT

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PARTRIDGE

btrt now it is seen only in Florida, and rarely there. Its body is bright green, its head and neck yellow. Parrots proper have short, square tails, and are bir^ of moderate size. They are characterized by Hornaday as "naturally sedate and observant, possessing excellent memories, fond of the companionship of man . . . the broad, fleshy tongue rendering possible the articulation of many vocal sounds/' The voice is naturally harsh, but many can be taught to speak. Parrots vary much individually in their capacity for speech. The jako, or gray parrot of Africa is the best talker; the yellow-headed parrot of Mexico stands second in the art.

Par'rott, Robert Parker, an American inventor, was born at Lee, N. H., Oct. 5, 1804. He graduated from West Point, and was professor of mathematics and of natural philosophy there. His active service in the army was in the war against the Creeks in 1834. In 1836 he was put in charge of the West Point cannon foundry. While there he invented the system of rifled-guns and projectiles which bears his name. These guns were first used at the battb of Bull Run in 1861. He died at Cold Spring N, Y., Dec. 24, 1877.

Par'ry, Sir William Edward, an Arctic explorer, was born at Bath, England^ Dec. 19, 1790, and entered the navy in 1806. In 1810 he commanded a ship sent to the Arctic to protect the whale fisheries, and afterward commanded expeditions, in 1818, to find the Northwest Passage, in 1819, to explore Barrow Strait, Regent's Inlet and Wellington Channel, in 1821 and 1824, with no results, and in 1827 with an attempt to reach the pole in sledges from Spitzbergen. He was knighted in 1829, became rear-admiral in 1852, and in 1853 was appointed governor of Greenwich Hospital, an office that he held to his death July 8, 1855, at Ems, Germany* See Life by his son.

Par'sis (par'sez), are the few remaining followers of the Persian religion of Zoroaster. Their name is Persian for Persians. When Zoroaster lived or whether he lived at all is a question, but that which remains of the alleged teachings shows that at first the belief centered in a single god, but that the god had two spirits, a reality and a non-reality; which soon led to the worship of two gods, a god of good and one of eviL The religion flourished to the time of Alexander the Great, but after his death it declined until A. D. 212, when Ardashfr caused the book (Zend) to be restored and spread it throughout the land. The priests, of whom there were 40,000, became very powerful, and the religion flourished again until the defeat of the Persians in the battle ox Nahavand by Omar in 641 A. D. Thereupon the greater portion became Mohammedans, but many fled some going to India, where they now live under English rule and are much respected. In 1901 there were

94,190 Parsis in British India; and in Persia there are about 9,000 Parsis or Guebers. They eat nothing cooked by a person of another religion, and no beef or pork; prohibit polygamy; and they do not bury their dead, but expose the bodies upon an iron grating. The symbol of their god is the sun, and the worship is by a perpetual fire •upon the altars. See Monier Williams's Modern India.

Par'sons, Kas., a city in Labette County, on the St. Louis and San Francisco and Missouri, Kansas and Texas railroads, the latter maintaining car and machine shops here. It has an industrial establishment and prominent buildings, notably the High School and the Masonic buildings. It was founded in 1871 and incorporated as a city in 1873. The government is vested in a mayor, elected for two years, and a council. Population 12,463.

Parthenogenesis (pdr'the-nd-jen'e-si,s) (in plants), the name applied to the production of a new plant by an egg which has not been fertilized. It is a common phenomenon in certain of the lowest plants (Thallophytes), but is very rare in the higher plants. The term is often wrongly used among seed-plants to 'nclude the formation of embryos within seeds without the presence of pollen. In most of these cases it has been proved that the embryo has not come from an unfertilized egg but has arisen by a budding process from other cells.

Parthenon (pdr'the-non) (Greek for maiden's chamber) is the temple of Athene* (Pallas) in Athens, as it stands, the most perfect example of Greek architecture. The erection of it was superintended by Pheidias, It is built of Pentelic marble, with eight pillars in breadth and 15 in length,, being 228 feet long and 64 feet higho It stood uninjured until 1687,, when it was being used as a Turkish magazine and an exploding Venetian bomb reduced it to its present state of ruin. See the Dilettanti Society's Athenian Architecture.

Par'ton, James, an American author, was born at Canterbury Englands Feb. 9, 1822 coming to New York when five years old. His chief works are lives of Greeleys Franklins Jefferson, Burr, Jackson and Voltaire. He died at Newburyport, Mass., Oct. 17 1891.

Par'tridge, a game-bird belonging to the grouse family0 The true partridges are Old World birds. Nevertheless the name is loosely applied in the United States to the ruffed grouse, which is called partridge in the north, and to the bob-white, called partridge in the south. The common partridge ot England and Europe is about a foot long, of a mottled-gray color. The red-legged partridge of Europe and Asia is larger and if? one ot the finest game birds. The California mountain quail or mountain partridge is an interesting bird of our north

PASADENA

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west. It has a black throat, a noticeable white crescent on each side of the throat and a long drooping plume extending backward from the head. A smaller bird, the valley quail or valley-partridge, the most common June bird of California, is found also in Oregon, Nevada and elsewhere in the west. It dwells high up in the mountains as well as down in the lowlands. Though not gaudy its coloring is rich, and it wears a black plume that curves forward from its head in most jaunty fashion. In portions of Texas, New Mexico and Arizona may

PARTRIDGE

be found Mearns' partridge of Mexico, very striking in appearance, large white spots on its sides, its head adorned with bars of black and white. See BOB-WHITE. See Hornaday's American Natural History and Chapman's Bird Life.

Pas'ade"na, Cal., a charming residence city and tourist resort, is 10 miles east of Los Angeles at the foot of the Sierra Madre. This city is unique in beauty of situation, and, as it escapes the ocean fog, its climate is delightful. It attracts thousands of visitors. Its beautiful residence, parks, churches, schools and hotels are greatly admired. In addition to its excellent public school system, Throop Polytechnic Institute, a school of manual and technical instruction, pr*>v:des for higher education. Population 30*291.

Pascal (pdstoa't).. Blaise, a great writer and deep thinker of France, was born on June 19, 1623, iri Auyergne. Before he was 16 he wrote a treatise on conic sections that still forirr the basis of the modern treatment 01 he subject. He published his Nouvelles Experiences sur le Vide in 1647, and next year made his famous experiment in atmosphere pressure. Besides this, he invented a calculating machine. His best known work "s entitled Pensees (Thoughts) sur la Religion. He died at Paris, Aug. 19,1662. See Tulloch's Pascal in Foreign Classics Series.

Passa'ic, N. J., a city, lies on Passaic River, u miles from Jersey City. It has foundries and print works and manufactories of woolens, shoddy, whips, chemicals mid india rubber. Population 54*773-

Pas'samaquod'dy Bay opens from the Bay of Fundy on the North American coast between Maine and New Brunswick at the mouth of St. Croix River. It is about 15 miles long by 10 wide, and hemmed by islands that make an excellent harbor.

Pas'sion Flower, a species of plant almost exclusively found in the warmer parts of America, has a flower, shading from purple into li'ght heliotrope of five parts, with narrow lines of white from the edge of the petals meeting at the center, It received its name from the early Spanish settlers, who saw in it the crown of thorns and the five marks of the wounds of the Lord. It is a shrubby, climbing plant with lobed leaves, and some species are cultivated for the fruit, particularly the sweet calabash of the West Indies, ,the root of which is poisonous and acts like morphine. The roots, leaves and flowers of some species are used as medicine.

Pass'over, an annual feast of the Jews, an account of whose origin is given in Exodus xii, is the feast of unleavened bread, and probably originated when the Jews were a wandering tribal race and offered thanks for the year's prosperity (Gen. iv: 4), With the settlement of the Jews in Canaan, the feast and sacrifice became a fixture of the harvest time in the spring, when, after the offering of the first sheaf, the people enjoyed their corn without waiting to have their bread leavened. The celebration is accompanied by many rites spoken of in Chronicles, Ezra, Psalms cxiit and cxvii, I. Cor. v: 7 and John xix: j6. See Well-hausen's History of Israel.

Pass'port is a paper given by a government to an individual authorizing him to leave the country or allowing him to travel through or reside in it, affording the traveler protection. The rule has become somewhat relaxed of late, but Russia and Turkey still insist on them, while Germany requires a passport from a foreigner who wishes to reside in one place for any period of time. In England and the United States no passports are required, but they may be obtained as a precautionary measure,

Pasteur (pds'ter'), Louis, a distinguished French chemist and biologist, was born in the department of Jura, Dec. 27, 1822. He graduated (D. Sc.) from the fecole Normal: in 1847, and, after holding several teachin" positions became professor of chemistry at the Sorbonne in 1867. He began as a chemist, but turned into microscopical work, especially along the line of bacteriology, and also ranks as a biologist. He made many discoveries of especial benefit to mankind. About 1857 he showed fermentation to bo due o the growth of micro-organisms. In 1859 he engaged against Pouchet in the controversy on the spontaneous generation of Iife0 and by public experiments showel the falsity of Pouchet's position, and proved that spontaneous generation does not occur. In 1865 he turned his attention to the diseases of the silkworm, and in two years was able to arrest the ravages of a disease among them. His discoveries resulted in saving millions of dollars annually to the silk industry. His further work helped in establishing the germ-theory of disease (which see). He studied profoundly the methods of using attenuated virus for vaccination against splenic fever, hydrophobia and other diseases. In 1888 Pasteur Institute was formally opened at Paris for the cure or prevention of hydrophobia. He received many honors both at home and from learned societies all over the world. He died on Sept. 28, 1895. See Louis Pasteur; translated by Lady Hamilton.

LOUIS PASTEUR

Pas′teur Institute. This is an institution partly supported and controlled by the French government, which as its chief aim prosecutes researches in cancer, tuberculosis, appendicitis and other prevalent maladies. Its name is taken from Louis Pasteur, who carried on his later researches there. Pasteur indicated the possibility of a science of stereo-chemistry; and was the first to show that the fermentations of milk, butter etc. are due to living micro-organisms. He showed the possibility of vaccination against disease and of sterilizing substances like milk which may convey it. Pasteur Institute became short of funds to continue its valuable researches; but early in 1907 it was the recipient of a legacy of 30,000,000 francs [nearly $6,000,000] under the will of M. Osiois, one of the executors of which was M. Emile Loubet, former president of the French republic.

Pat′ago′nia, as the most southern country of South America was once called, extends south from the Argentine republic 1,000 miles to the Straits of Magellan, which separate it from Tierra del Fuego. The Andes divide the country into two parts, the eastern area of which now belongs to the Argentine republic and the western to Chile. To-day Patagonia is but a geographical term. The western portion is rugged and mountainous, with islands and cliffs along the Pacific coast, which give it a wild outline. The strip of shore along the Pacific from the Andes is so narrow that there are no rivers longer than 13 miles. The temperature varies from 50° to 33°, summer and winter, and is very damp. Coal is mined at Punta Arenas, where Chile has a colony and penal settlement. Eastern Patagonia is not so desolate, but has high plains in some places covered by grass, forests, and shrubs, yet along the Atlantic coast everything is wild. The rivers here are the Negro, Chubut, Deseado, Chico, Santa Cruz and Gallegos, all rising in the Andes. Some horses and cattle are raised, and wild fowl and animals are found in some regions. The inhabitants are Indians, almost a race by themselves, who are tall and straight, hardy, strong and muscularly developed. Some Europeans are found at the settlements at Patagones, on the Chubut and the Santa Cruz. Magellan sailed along the entire coast in 1520, and the great plain was explored by De Isla in 1535. See works on Patagonia by Falkner, Snow, Pritchard and Musters.

Pataps′co, a river of Maryland, flowing into Chesapeake Bay, 14 miles below Baltimore. It is 80 miles long, and admits large vessels as far as Baltimore.

Pat′ent, the privilege granted by a government to an inventor, of the exclusive right to his invention for a term of years. The royal grant in England was made by letters-patent or open letters, called so because they were not sealed. The system of giving patents is common in Europe and the United States, though Switzerland and Holland have no patent laws and Prussia does not favor them. The United States Patent-Office is a branch of the Department of the Interior, and has its records, models and drawings at Washington. The first American law of patents was passed in 1790; the present law in 1870. Any invention, both new and useful, can receive a patent. It is necessary only that it should be new in the United States, its previous use in foreign countries not preventing a patent. Any person who is the first inventor of anything that admits of a patent can obtain one, whether a resident of the country or a foreigner. The patents are given for seventeen years and cannot be renewed. About 30,000 patents are applied for yearly in America.

PATENTS AND THE CONTROL OF PRICES

A decision by the U. S. Supreme Court in 1913 declared it unlawful for a manufacturer to fix the retail price of his product by refusing to sell to retailers who fail to adhere to this price. The case was one in which a manufacturer of a patented article claimed that his patent gave him the absolute control of the sale of the article, including the price.

Pat′erson, N. J., a city 15 miles from New York city, is situated on Passaic River. The river curves around three sides of the city, and has a fall of 50 feet, which gives the fine water-power used in many manufactures. Its principal manufactures are silk goods and locomotives, paper mills,

PATERSON

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tories of carpets, shawls, wire and bagging. There are over a hundred silk factories, making ribbons, handkerchiefs, veils, scarfs, fringes, dress-silks and sewing silk, giving the city the name of the Lyons of America. Population 125,600.

Paterson, William, founder of the Bank of England, was born in Dumfriesshire, Scotland, in April, 1658. He made a fortune by trade in London, and planned the Bank of England, being one of its first directors. He was active in accomplishing the union of England and Scotland. He died on Jan.

22, 1719. See Life by Bannister. Pat'mpre, Coventry Kearsey Deighton,

an English poet, was born in Essex, July

23, 1823, and died in Hampshire, Nov. 26, 1896. His first poems were published in 1844. His best-known work is The Angel in the House — a poem in four parts — " The Betrothal," "The Espousals," "Faithful for Ever" and "The Victories of Love." He also edited The Children's Garland and The Autobiography of Barry Cornwall.

Pat'mos, a small rocky island in the ^Egean Sea, now called Patino. It is known as the place of exile of John the apostle, and where, tradition says, he saw the visions recorded in Apocalypse or Revelation. The monastery of John the Divine, built in 1088, stands on a mountain in the island. The island belongs to Turkey, and is inhabited by about 4,000 Greeks, who live mostly by fishing for sponges.

Pat'na, the fifteenth city of British India, is situated in Bengal on the Ganges. It stretches nine miles along the river, but has narrow streets and poor houses. The government opium factories, Patna College, Mosque of Sher Shah, a Roman Catholic church and a Mohammedan college are the principal buildings. Its situation at the junction of three great rivers, the Ganges, Gandak and Son, gives it a large trade. It exports oil seeds, cocoanuts, salt, spices, cotton, and tobacco. Patna was founded probably about 600 B. C. In 1763 it was the scene of a massacre of British prisoners and of a mutiny in 18 5 7. Population 134,785.

Pa'ton John Gibson, a Scottish missionary whose field of work, for many years, wasj in the South Pacific Ocean, was born in Dumfriesshire, May 24, 1824. He labored first as a city missionary at Glasgow, and in 1858 went to the New Hebrides, working first among the cannibal natives of Tanna. After four years the opposition of the natives forced him to leave. His great work was done on Aniwa, where he lived twenty years and saw the whole population become Christians. The story of his missionary life, edited by his brother, and published in a Chicago edition in 1892, is one of the most thrilling in missionary literature. He died on Jan. 28, 1907.

Paton, Sir Noel, a British painter, was born at Dunfermline, Scotland, Dec. 13,

1821. His pictures of Christ Bearing the Cross and The Reconciliation of Oberon and Titania together gained a prize of $1,500. Scenes from fairyland and legend and religious allegory made his work familiar and have been often engraved. Among his works are Home from the Crimea, Luther at Erfurt, The Fairy Raid, Gethsemane, Christ and Mary at the Sepulchre, The Man of Sorrows and Thy Will be Done. He is known also by his illustrations of the Lays of the Scottish Cavaliers and The Ancient Mariner. He also wrote two volumes of poems. He died in 1902. Pa'triarch, Greek, the head of the Greek church. The name patriarch was

fiven to the bishops of some of the larger ivisions of sees or bishoprics of the Christian church, and at the time of the council of Nice (A. D. 325) there were three patriarchs: Those of Antioch, Alexandria and Rome. When the seat of empire was changed to Constantinople, its bishop was made a patriarch, and was superior to those of Antioch and Alexandria and second only to the prelate at Rome. The Roman or western and the Greek or eastern church arose from a division in the universal Christian church, resulting from the contests between the patriarchs of Rome and Constantinople.

Pat'rick, Saint, the apostle and patron saint of Ireland, was a distinguished missionary of the 5th century. He is thought to have been born about 392. When a boy he was taken by pirates and sold to an Irish chief, who lived near the town of Broughshane, in County Antrim. He escaped after six years and went to France, becoming a monk. In 432 he went as a missionary to Ireland, landing at Wicklow. He is said to have founded 365 churches, baptized 12,000 people and consecrated 450 bishops. The date of his death is in dispute, the year 4 70, the latest period given, making him about 100 years old. The only certain writings of his are his Confessions and a letter written to a man named Corot-icus. See Tripartite Life of St. Patrick by Stokes and Lives by Todd, Healy, Bury and Lusack.

Patti, Adelina (pat'te, ad-e-U'nd) , a famous opera singer ol Italian family, was born at Madrid, Spain, on Feb. 19, 1843. When seven years old, she sang Casta Diva in New York, where her family were then living, and made her first appearance in opera in that city in 1859. Her first appearance at London in 1861 was as successful as were

ADELINA PATTI

PATTON

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PAUL

those in the United States, and there and at Paris and St. Petersburg, and wherever she sang, she was received with great enthusiasm. Her marriage in 1868 to the Marquis de Caux ended in divorce in 1885 and in 1886 she married the tenor singer, Ernest Nicolini. His death occurred in 1898, and a year later she married Baron CederstrCm, the Swedish nobleman. In 1903-04 this successful queen of song made a farewell tour of the United States. She resides in her Welsh home (Craig-y-nos) near Swansea.

Pat'ton, Francis Landey, an American clergyman and educator, was born in War-^ wick Parish, Ber-

muda, Jan. 22, 1843, and educated at K n o x College, Toronto. He graduated at Princeton Theological Seminary in 1865. He received the degree of D.D. from Yale in 1888 and that of LL.D. from Harvard in 1889. He was ordained to the Presbyterian ministry on June i, 1865, and was pastor in New York City, Nyack and Brooklyn in succession. He became a professor in what'now is McCormick Theological Seminary in 1872, where he remained nine years. In 1881 he was elected to a chair in Princeton Theological Seminary and in 1888 to the presidency of the University of Princeton. In 1902 he resigned this office and became president of Princeton Theological Seminary. His published work embraces Inspiration of the Scriptures and Summary of Christian Doctrine.

Paul was the name of five Popes, of whom Paul I and Paul II were unimportant

Paul III (Alexander Farnese) was born in Tuscany in 1468, and elected pope in 1534. Though ambitious to advance his family, making cardinals of two grandsons while they were boys, he was a wise ruler and surrounded himself with good cardinals. His bull or decree of excommunication against Henry VIII of England, issued in 1538, and the one forming the Order of the Jesuits are the most important edicts of his reign. He supported Charles V in his struggles against the Protestant League in Germany. He died suddenly, Nov. 10, 1549. See Lives of the Popes by Ranke.

Paul IV (Giovanni (jo-vanfne} Pietro (pe-d'tro) Caraffa) was born at Naples in 1476. He became pope in 1555. He was strict in the punishment of heresy, establishing a censorship to examine books, and

was the first to issue a list of prohibited books. He was thoughtful of the poor and just in his government, even banishing his own nephews from Rome on account of their evil conduct. He became involved in quarrels with Emperor Ferdinand, Philip II of Spain and Cosmo, grandduke of Tuscany. His strength giving way, he died on Aug. 18, 1559. See Lives of the Popes by Ranke.

Paul V (Camil'lo Borghese) was born at Rome in 1552. He was nuncio or representative of the Roman church at the Spanish court and a cardinal under Clement VIII. In 1605 he became pope. His rule was vigorous, made memorable by his long conflict with Venice on the claim that the clergy should not be liable to trial by the common courts. The dispute was settled in 1607 by the help of Henry IV of France. Paul improved E.ome by new public works, the preservation of antiquities and the establishment and renewal of museums, libraries and charitable institutions. He died on Jan. 28, 1621. See Paul the Pope and Paul the Friar by Trollope.

Paul, Herbert, English historian and man of letters, member (since 1906) of the British Parliament for Northampton, was born in 1853. Early in his literary career he set himself to write a History of Modern England, beginning with the downfall of Sir Robert Peel in 1846 — a work which was completed in 1906 and established his reputation as an eminent writer of the day. Of this work a noted critic has said that "whatever else this book does or fails to do, it establishes Mr. Paul". Mr. Paul then wrote a Life of Froude the historian.

Paul, Saint (originally Saul), the great apostle of the Gentiles, was born about 3 A. D., in Tarsus according to some, but according to St. Jerome, at Giscala in Cilicia, and taken to Tarsus in his infancy. He was a Jew of the tribe of Benjamin, and received the name Saul, changed afterwards to Paul. He in some way also was a Roman citizen. He studied at Jerusalem in the famous school of Gamaliel, and makes his first appearance in history as a persecutor of the new sect of Christians. After the persecution at Jerusalem he set out for Damascus on the same errand. His conversion from a persecuting Pharisee to an apostle of the new religion, according to the account given in Acts, was effected by a blinding vision which outshone the Syrian sun and, he affirms, was a vision of the Jesus whom he persecuted. Cured of his temporary blindness, he spent three years in retirement in Arabia, and then at Damascus began his wonderful life of labor and suffering. He and Barnabas were the first foreign missionaries of the Christian church, sailing to Cyprus, to Perga and to Lystra, where Paul was stoned and left for dead. He sided with the Gentile converts in their struggle to free themselvesjErom the

FRANCIS PATTON, LL.D.

PAUNCEFOTE

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burdens of the Jewish ceremonies, and thus won the first battle of religious liberty in the Christian church. On his second missionary journey he preached from Areopagus (Mars' Hill) at Athens, to the seekers of "an unknown God," and founded the churches of Philippi, Corinth and Thessalonica. During his third missionary journey through Galatia, Phrygia, Macedonia and the Grecian Islands he wrote his most important group of epistles. On his fifth visit to Jerusalem he was mobbed by the Jews, who charged him with taking a Gentile into the temple, but, claiming protection as a Roman citizen, he was sent to Felix, the Roman governor, at Csesarea, who kept him two years in prison. Tried again by Festus, he appealed to Cassar and was sent bound to Rome, suffering shipwreck on the journey. Two years were spent in prison with a guard of soldiers, but he carried on his work of preaching, making converts among his guards and even in Caesar's household. He seems to have been acquitted at Rome, and there are traces of probable visits to Colos-sae, Crete and Nicopolis, his trial and imprisonment at Ephesus and his second journey to Rome. His death under Nero, probably by beheading, as he was a Roman citizen, is taught by Christian tradition; but nothing definite is known of this. Thirteen epistles were written by him and are found in the New Testament, some of them being letters to churches, some to friends, in which are found those truths which make Paul the chief founder of Christian theology. "He has earned the admiration of all Christian ages, because he was great enough to overcome the prejudices of his nation and sect and to be cursed in his own age as a renegade Jew." See Life and Epistles of St. Paul by Conybeare and Howson and Life of Paul by Dean Farrar. ^

Pauncefote (pans'foot), Julian, Lord, an English diplomat*,'was born at Munich, Bavaria, Sept. 13, 1828. He helped negotiate the famous Hay-Pauncefote treaty. (See HAY). He became a barrister of the Inner Temple in 1852; secretary of state for the colonies in 1866; chief-justice of the Leeward Islands in 1874; under-secretary of state for foreign affairs, 1882; delegate for drawing up an act relative to the navigation of Suez Canal in 1885; and minister plenipotentiary to the United States in 1889. He was a member of the international peace-conference at The Hague in 1899, and was afterward raised to the peerage His office in Washington, on account of his distinguished services, was raised from that of a minister to that of an ambassador in 1893. He was created a baron in 1899. He died on May 24, 1902.^

Pausanias (pa-sd'rit-Ms), a Spartan general and nephew of Leonidas. He was in command of the Greeks in the battle of Plataea, 479 B. C., in which the Persians were

defeated. He compelled the Th^bans to give up the chiefs of the Persian party for punishment, and captured Cyprus and Byzantium. His ambition now made him be* come a traitor to his country, and he entered into secret negotiations with Xerxes, hoping to rule Greece under him. He was recalled to Sparta and tried, but acquitted because of his former services to the state. A second time he renewed his intrigues, a second time was called to account by the Spartans, and a second time escaped punishment His third effort to stir up the helots to rebellion was betrayed by one of them, and Pausanias took refuge in a temple. The people blocked the gate of the temple with heaps of stones, leaving him to die of hunger, his mother placing the first stone

Pave'ment, a covering of stone, brick, wood, cement or asphalt, placed on a street or road to give a hard and easier surface for travel (See ASPHALT, BRICK, CEMENT, STONE and WOOD.) It is to be distinguished from the gravel and stone coating put on country roads. Pavements are mostly used in cities where the travel is large. The first thing necessary in a pavement is a good foundation. The work on the foundation depends largely upon the character of the soil and whether it is well-drained or not. The best foundation is a layer of concrete, varying from six to 12 inches thick according to the k>c,ds to be sustained. Of the materials used for pavement, wood in most parts of the United States is the cheapest, out it is not durable, as it rots, even when creosoted and coated with tar. Stone formerly was* used in the form of small round boulders, called cobble-stones, but this made so rough a pavement that it is seldom used now. Small rectangular blocks of granite or trap-rock are often used. About 1880 brick pavements were introduced in the smaller cities of Illinois and Ohio, and brick is now used very extensively in different parts of the country. When the special pavement-bricks of good quality are used and put on a good concrete foundation, they make one of the most satisfactory pavements for ordinary traffic, being both fairly durable and easy to travel on. Asphalt is a bituminous rock found in Trinidad, California and other places. When heated and mixed with sand it is used to coat a foundation on a street, and hardens into a smooth, elastic and durable pavement for residence streets. It is used extensively in many cities in the United States and in Berlin and Paris. Asphalt and brick have the advantage of medium cost and of being easily cleaned. Stone is the most durable, but the most costly.

Pavia (pa-ve'd)t a city of northern Italy, on Ticino River, 21 miles south of Milan. It was called the city of a hundred towers from its numerous square towers used as prisons, two of which, about 190 feet in height, are still standing. Its oldest church,

PAWNEES

1432

PEABODY

that of St. Michael, mentioned as early as 661, is the place where the early kings of Italy were crowned; restored in 1863-76, it is now called the royal basilica. The cathedral, begun in 1488 but never finished, contains the tomb of Boetius, and in a chapel connected with it are the ashes of St. Augustine. Near the city is the monastery of Cer-tosa, which was built by the first duke of Milan, its church being one of the most beautiful of that era. The university, which dates from 1300 and is thought to have been founded by Charlemagne, was famous in the middle ages. It has 1,550 students, 53 instructors and a library of 200,000 volumes. Pavia was founded by the Gauls, sacked by Attila in 453 and by Odoacer in 476. Under the Lombards, as their capital, it became the chief city of Italy. The city was taken by the French in 1527, in 1796 by Napoleon and belonged to Austria after the peace of 1814. Since 1859 it has been a part of the kingdom of Italy. Population 39,319.

Pawnees (pa'nezf), a tribe of American Indians, who lived on the Platte and its branches in Nebraska. They were divided into four bands, and were always fighting the Sioux, but have been friendly to white settlers. In 1833 and 1857 they gave parts of their lands to the United States, which, however, did not protect them from the Sioux, by whom they were slaughtered, until the remnant of the tribe removed to Indian Territory in 1876. See Pawnee Hero Stories and Folk-Tales by Grinnell.

Paw=Paw, called also pa-paw and custard-apple, is a small tree or shrub found in the central and southern parts of the United States. The fruit looks somewhat like a ripe cucumber or banana, with a yellow skin, turning brown as it becomes ripe. The flesh is soft, about the color of custard, very sweet and with large, flat, black seeds, larger than those of a watermelon. It is not often found in markets. A variety which grows in South America has a larger fruit, which is cooked with sugar and lemon before eating. Its leaves are used instead of soap, and its juice preserves meat.

Pawtuck'et, R. I., a city in Providence County, is on Pawtucket River, four miles north of Providence. The river has a fall of 50 feet, which makes the city one of manufactures. It was the site in 1790 of the first cotton-factory in the United States (the original building still stands) and for 40 years was the most important manufacturing town in the country. It has cotton, woolen, haircloth and thread factories, calico-printing works, bleaching and dyeing establishments, hosiery and silk mills, boot and shoe factories and jewelry works. Paw-tucket was settled about 1655, formed a part of Bristol County, Conn., until 1861, and became a city in 1886. Population 51,622.

Pax'ton, Sir Joseph, an English architect, was born in Bedfordshire, Aug. 3, 1801.

He began life as a gardener in the service of the duke of Devonshire. His care of the duke's great glass conservatories at Chats-worth suggested the use of glass and iron for the Crystal Palace for the great exhibition of 1851. It was the first time these materials had "! een used for so large a building, and the effect delighted all wh<_. saw it. Pax-ton was knighted for his successful design. He sat in Parliament nine years, and died at Sydenham, near London, June 8, 1865.

Payne, John Howard, an American dramatist, was born at New York, June 9, 1792. His first appearance as an actor was in that city in 1809. He was a successful ,ctor for 30 years and wrote several plays, of which the best known are Brutus, Charles II and Clari. The song, Home, Sweet Home, for which he is remembered, is in Clari, which was produced as an opera. The author had no home for the last 40 years of his life, and died in a foreign land, having been appointed American consul at Tunis, where he died on April 10, 1852. His remains were brought to America, and buried at Washington in 1883. See Life and Poems, edited by Harrison, and J. H, Payne by Brainard.

Pea, an annual vine (Pisum sativum) of the order Leguminoscz, commonly grown in gardens all over the world and extensively sown in fields as fodder ior cattle. It is a climbing vine with pinnate leaves. Its original home is western Asia and eastern Europe. Pea-seeds have been found in Egyptian tombs. About 200 varieties of garden-peas are annually offered by American seedsmen. Wrinkle-seeded peas are generally considered superior in flavor to smooth-seeded peas. Peas thrive best in fairly rich, well-drained, loamy soils. The plants are hardy, withstanding light frosts without injury, though not succeeding well in dry, hot weather. Their wealth of nitrogenous elements makes them valuable fertilizers of soils. Canada and our northern states are the chief sources of the dried peas, and furnish practically all pea-seed. Peas are highly prized as food. Immense quantities are canned green. Several plants of the Leguminoscs, as the sweet pea (q. v.) are called peas, though not peas. They have more than 20 insect-enemies, the green pea-louse doing prodigious damage.

Pea'body, Andrew Preston, an American (Unitarian) clergyman, was born at Beverly, Mass., March 9, 1811. He graduated at Harvard College in 1826, studied theology, and for seventeen years was pastor of a church at Portsmouth, N. H. He was then appointed preacher and professor of Christian morals in Harvard University. For nine years he was editor of the North American Review, a frequent contributor to periodicals and a well-known lecturer. He published Christian Doctrine, Christian Console tions, Manual ef Moral Philosophy', ChrisChristianity and Science and Christian Belief and Life. He died on March 10, 1893. ## Peabody, Elizabeth Palmer ## Peabody, Elizabeth Palmer, an American educator, was born at Billerica, Mass., May 16, 1804. She was a sister of Mrs. Nathaniel Hawthorne and Mrs. Horace Mann. She taught in Bronson Alcott's celebrated school and was one of the first to introduce the methods of Froebel into American schools and to use object-lessons in teaching. She was the first to establish a kindergarten in America. She published many works of an educational character, especially upon her favorite theme. Among her best-known works are The Kindergarten in Italy, Letters to Kindergartners and Guide to the Kindergarten etc. She died at Jamaica Plain, Mass., Jan. 3, 1894.

Peabody, George, an American merchant and banker, was born at South Danvers, Mass., Feb. 18, 1795. When 11 he began his business life in a grocery, was next a clerk in Thetford, Vt., and afterwards partner of a dry-goods house in Georgetown, D. C. This business was removed to Baltimore in 1815, and had branches at Philadelphia and New York in 1822. In 1837 he settled in London, starting a banking house and making a large fortune, partly by investing heavily in government bonds during the Civil War. In 1851 he supplied the money needed to fit up the American department of the Great Exhibition at London. His fame rests, not on his wealth, but on his benevolence, as during his lifetime he gave away five and a half million dollars. Among these gifts were $10,000 to the Grinnell expedition to the north pole under Dr. Kane; $200,000 to found Peabody Institute at South Danvers; $50,000 to an institution at North Danvers; $1,000,000 to Peabody Institute at Baltimore; $25,000 each to Phillips Academy, Andover, and Kenyon College, at Gambier, O.; $150,000 each to Harvard and Yale; and $3,500,000 as a fund for educational purposes in the south. He also spent $2,500,000 in building model homes for the poor of London, of which in 1889 there were eighteen groups in different parts of the city, accommodating 20,000 people, while the rents and interest brought in $150,000 net profit. He was offered the title of baron by Queen Victoria, but declined, asking only for “a letter from the queen, which I may carry to America and deposit as a memorial of one of her most faithful sons.” The letter was given with the queen's portrait, and both are deposited in Peabody Institute, South Danvers (now called Peabody in honor of its illustrious citizen). He died at London, Nov. 4, 1869, his body being sent to America in an English warship. There are statues of Peabody at London and Baltimore. See Life by Hanaford, and Beneficent and Useful Lives by Cochrane.

Peabody, Mass., a city in Essex County, on the Boston and Maine Railroad, two miles from Salem. It includes several villages, and is a manufacturing center of considerable importance. It has a good system of public schools. Peabody Institute with a library of about 40,000 volumes is here, as is Eben Dale Sutton Reference Library. Essex County Agricultural Society and Peabody Historical Society have their permanent quarters in Peabody. The latter in 1902 presented Peabody Institute with a small safe containing pictures of the town and articles written by the leading citizens and municipal officials, to be opened on or after June 6th, 2002. Peabody became a separate town under the name of Danvers in 1855. The present name was adopted in 1868 in honor of George Peabody who was born, and for some years lived there. The city government is administered by town-meeting. Population 15,721.

Peace River, a great river in Alberta, is formed by the junction of the Findlay and Parsnip in the center of northern British Columbia 1,000 miles to the west. It flows into Lake Athabasca. Peace River practically passes through the center of a vast district, and in the development of this will play an important part, since navigation is practically without a dangerous rapid or obstacle of any kind throughout its whole course, with the exception of that at Vermillion Chutes (five miles above where the Little Red River joins the Peace). It runs through a country of vast natural resources, as timber, asphalt, copper, salt and fish. The agricultural possibilities are unsurpassed in the northwest. The Hudson Bay Company has a large and excellently equipped flour-mill at Fort Vermillion, 670 miles north of the United States boundary and where there is a settlement of 500 people. Considerable wheat, oats and barley were grown there in 1906. Wheat has been successfully raised for over twenty years. Peace River Valley is a tract 75 miles in width on each side of the river and seven or eight hundred miles long. The soil is claimed to be as good as that on the Saskatchewan.

Peace Societies, societies formed for the promotion of peace among the nations of the world. The first peace society in the world was founded in New York City in August of 1815. In other states similar societies were formed about the same time. The American Peace Society was organized in New York City on May 8th, 1828. Shortly after this the local society of New York ceased to exist. The first peace society in Europe was the English Peace Society founded in London on June 14th, 1816. Not many years after the organization of these first societies societies in one form or another with like purposes were forming in all parts of practically all civilized countries; and it is largely to the influences these societies exerted that The Hague conferences owe whatever success they attained. One of the most active peace societies of the present day is the Peace Society of the City of New York organized on January 23d, 1906. The remarkable success of the National Arbitration and Peace Congress, held in New York City on April 14th-17th, 1907, in which many distinguished foreigners took active part, was due in large measure to the wisely directed efforts of this society.

Peach, the well-known fruit of a species of Prunus (P. Persica) which is native to China. Associated with the peach, in the genus Prunus, are the almond, plum, apricot and cherry. A smooth-skinned variety is called nectarine. The peach has long been cultivated and many varieties have been produced. They are extensively cultivated in the warmer parts of Asia as well as in certain regions of the United States. The pericarp, that is, the transformed ovary, ripens into an outer fleshy layer and an inner stony one. Cultivation has done much in increasing the thickness of the pulpy layer. The tree is small, from 10 to 20 feet high and bears many branches. The fragrant, pink blossoms usually appear before the leaves; the leaves are lanceolate. In this country peaches are grown in orchards, but in England they are trained against walls and also cultivated under glass. Peaches are cultivated in the United States most extensively in Maryland, Delaware, New Jersey, Michigan, Arkansas, Texas and on the Pacific slope. A great danger lies in the early blossoming and the killing of the fruit-buds by frost. Insect enemies are the peach-tree borer, the twig-borer, the fruit-tree bark-beetle, the peach-tree leaf-roller, scale insects and aphids. The trees must be carefully examined, and spraying is essential. They are subject to various fungous diseases, and under the best conditions are not long-lived.

Peach-Tree Borer, a larva that works much harm to the peach crop. The moth resembles a steel-blue wasp in appearance and emerges from its cocoon from late June to early September. It flies by day, and feeds on flowers. The eggs, brown in color, are glued to the bark of the peach or the pear close to the ground. As many as 700 have been counted in one female. They hatch in about a week. At once the tiny borer makes its way to the inner bark. Here it stays about ten months, feeding during this long period save in the coldest weather. It then makes a brown cocoon, usually placed near the ground and in about three weeks the adult insect emerges. In combating this grievous pest, trees should be gone over in September, May and late June, all gummy exudations watched and the larvae dug out and destroyed. There are few natural enemies to assist in the extermination of the peach-tree borer.

Pea′cock, a bird belonging to the pheasant family and conspicuous for the beautiful train of the male. This train is not composed of the tail-feathers, but of long feathers which overlie those of the tail and are called tail-coverts. These, with the tail, are capable of being raised. The birds roost in trees or high places, and always sit facing the wind. They make their nests on the ground, of small sticks or leaves. The peacock is a native of India and Ceylon, and is plentiful in their forests and jungles. Their diet is varied, consisting of worms, reptiles, grain, flesh or fish etc. These birds have been naturalized in many parts of the world. The plumage of the male combines blue, green, gold and bronze tints. The tail-coverts are especially magnificent, with bright-colored eye-spots, and can be spread into the form of a huge fan. The blue tint is so characteristic that it has given rise to the name of peacock-blue. The proud, self-conscious air worn when showing off his splendors, has given rise to the phrase: “proud as a peacock.” The bird is said not to exhibit these splendors save when sure of an audience. By the ancients the peacock was called the bird of Juno. But though the plumage is so beautiful, the voice is discordant, the utterance a scream. The flesh was once considered a great delicacy; peacock's liver being much in vogue at the old Roman banquets, and during the middle ages a cooked bird decked out in all its finery often appeared on the table of the rich. The female is not brilliantly colored, is brownish and is without showy tail-coverts. At first, both are alike in plumage, but the male begins to acquire gorgeous tints, and is in perfect plumage at the end of about three years.

Peale, Charles Wilson, an American portrait-painter, was born at Chestertown, Md., April 16, 1741. His education in art he received from a German painter and from Copley. His paintings are chiefly portraits, for which he was celebrated, among them being several of Washington. In 1785 he formed a collection of natural curiosities, founding Peale's Museum at Philadelphia. During the Revolutionary War he commanded a company at Trenton and at Germantown. He died at Philadelphia, Feb. 22, 1827.

Peale, Rem′brandt, an American painter, the son of Charles W. Peale, was born in Pennsylvania, Feb. 22, 1778. He painted portraits for awhile at Charleston, S. C., and then went to England and France to study his art. Besides his many portraits, he painted several historical pictures, among them the well-known Roman Daughter; and the Court of Death, Notes on Italy and Port-folio of an Artist, were published by him. He died at Philadelphia, Oct. 3, 1860.

Peanut. The pod and seed of an annual

plant (arachis hypogaia) which belongs to

PEANUT

A—Plant with Root, Blossom and underground Nuts. 1—Blossom cut lengthwise. 2—Ripe Nut.
3—Nut cut lengthwise. 4—Seed. 5 and 6—Germ.

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Courtesy Chicago Academy of Sciences

SHOWING TOOLS AND STEPS IN MANUFACTURE OF PEARL BUTTONS FROM CLAM SHELLS

the pea family. It grows to a height of one to two feet. After its flower has faded, the stalk buries itself in the ground, where a number of yellowish seed pods are developed. These when mature are the peanut of the market. Peanuts thrive best in a light sandy loam, and in a moist, warm climate. In the south peanuts are more commonly known as goobers or goober peas. They are grown principally in Virginia, North Carolina, Georgia and Tennessee. The crop has become an important one. Virginia leads with an annual yield of nearly 4,000,000 bushels. A large part of the crop is used for roasted peanuts, and a high value is placed on the peanut for forage and hay. In 1910 our imports of peanuts amounted to over 33,000,000 bushels. The peanut is cheap and its food-value high. In the manufacture of peanut-butter and confectionery it has come to be extensively used.

Pear, a species of Pirus (P. communis) cultivated from Europe, a member of the rose family. It is associated in the same genus with the apple and quince. The tree in form inclines to the pryamidal, otherwise it resembles the apple. The flowers as a rule are white. The peculiarity of the fruit is that the flesh consists of the transformed cup, upon whose rim the sepals, petals and stamens arise. It is often spoken of as the calyx, but it represents a support common to all three of the outer floral organs. This type of fruit, with flesh developed from the part of the flower which surrounds the ovary, is called a pome. The ripened ovary is represented by the core. The pear has been cultivated from the most ancient times, and has reached a high degree of perfection. It is highly regarded as a dessert fruit, and is extensively canned and preserved. It holds fourth place among our orchard-fruits. Particular attention is paid to cultivation in the regions between New England and the Great Lakes, in California and in portions of Oregon and Washington. Almost innumerable varieties have been produced, each with its appropriate name. In a wild or neglected state the branches are more or less thorny, but under cultivation the thorns disappear. For a parasitic fungus that attacks both fruit and foliage Bordeaux mixture is recommended. Borers and the codlin moth are insect enemies that work some damage; the former must be dug out once or twice a year, for the latter arsenical sprays should be used. See Bailey's Cyclopedia of American Horticulture.

Pearl, one of the gems found in certain sea and fresh-water shells. Shells generally are lined by the animals inhabiting them with a material which gives them a smooth surface. It is laid in thin, partly transparent plates, which produce a beautiful play of colors. This lining is called mother-of-pearl or nacre. On opening the shells, there are sometimes found rounded portions of this nacre, which have been formed by throwing layers of this lining material around a grain of sand or a minute vegetable or animal growth. These are the pearls used in trade and worn as ornaments. They vary greatly in size, those about as large as a pea being the best. The largest one known is two inches long and four around. The smallest are called seed-pearls. The value depends upon size, shape, color and freedom from imperfections. The round ones are the best, the button-shaped next and the drop or pear-shaped least. Pearls, when perfectly round and of extraordinary beauty, sell for large sums; the single pearl which Cleopatra is said to have dissolved and swallowed was valued at over $400,000. The finest pearls are found close to the lips of the shell or in the soft part of the oyster near the hinge. The largest pearl fishery in America is that of Lower California, from which come the largest and finest black pearls in the market. The most famous pearls are from the east, especially from the Persian Gulf and from Ceylon. In Ceylon fishing lasts four to six weeks. Each boat has a crew of 13 men and 10 divers, five of whom rest while the other five are diving. The work has to be done very rapidly, as the best divers cannot stay longer than 80 seconds in the water. When a boatload of oysters has been obtained, the cargo is landed and piled on the shore to rot, so that the pearls can be easily found. When washing out the dead animals, a close watch is kept for loose pearls, which are always the finest, while those attached to the shells are removed by pincers or a hammer. In 1889 in 22 days 50 divers brought up 11,000,000 oysters. River-pearls are found in freshwater shells in Scotland, Wales, Ireland, Russia, Germany, Canada, the United States and China. The chief river-pearl fisheries in the United States are in the streams of the Mississippi Valley; in Wisconsin, Iowa, Kentucky, Ohio and Arkansas. The lining of the shells, mother-of-pearl, is used largely in making buttons, knife and fork handles and inlaid work on furniture. See Gems and Precious Stones of North America by Kunz and Pearls and Pearling Life by Streeter.

Pearl, a river in Mississippi, rising in the center of the state and flowing south into the Gulf of Mexico. It forms part of the boundary between Louisiana and Mississippi. The river is 300 miles long and is obstructed by sandbars and driftwood.

Pearl Harbor, on the southern coast of Oahu, a Hawaiian island, and adjacent to Honolulu, is a land-locked harbor, 8 miles long by 4 wide, with a depth of water from 30 to 130 feet. It has great strategic value to the United States from the fact that it can be made an impregnable naval base where the largest fleet can lie safely. Reservations for a firstclass naval station have been secured, as also for a military reservation on the slopes of the mountain range in the rear. General Schofield after an inspection of Pearl Harbor in 1872 reported that “it could be completely defended by inexpensive batteries on either or both shores, firing across a narrow channel of entrance. Its waters are deep enough for the largest vessels of war and its lochs are spacious enough for a large number of vessels to ride at anchor in perfect security against all storms.” See Hawaii.

Pear′sons, Daniel Kimball, an American philanthropist, was born at Bedford, Vt., April 14, 1820. He graduated in medicine at Woodstock, Vt., and practiced in Chicopee, Mass., until 1857. He became a farmer in Ogle County, Ill., in 1857, but in 1860 removed to Chicago, where he rapidly accumulated a large fortune in real estate. For some years he served the city as alderman, and assisted in managing its financial budgets. He was best known through his large gifts to educational eleemosynary institutions, the Presbyterian Hospital of Chicago and Chicago Theological Seminary (Congregational) being especially favored. There are few of the smaller colleges to which he did not give from $25,000 to $250,000, and his gifts run well up into the millions. He died April 27, 1912.

Peary, Rear Admiral, Robert Edwin, discoverer of the North Pole, was born at Cresson, Pa., May 6, 1856. He graduated from Bowdoin College in 1877. He entered the U. S. Navy as a civil engineer Oct. 26, 1881. For several years he was engaged in surveys connected with the Nicaragua Ship Canal, but in 1886 made a trip to Greenland (q. v.). In 1891-2 his crossing of Greenland's northeastern corner was one of the most remarkable sledge-journeys ever made. He showed that the eastern and western coasts meet; discovered Melville and Heilprin Lands; made a second expedition to North Greenland, 1893-95; Arctic summer voyages, 1896, 1897; discovered and secured the Cape York meteorities, the largest in the world; in 1900 determined Greenland's northern limit by rounding it; demonstrated that for a considerable distance northward and northeastward there is no land and showed the origin of floebergs and paleocrystic ice. During his 1905-6 expedition he left his ship at 82°27′ N., and made a sledge-trip to 87°6′ N., 200.36 miles from the pole, the most northerly point yet reached. Sailing from New York in July 1908 he wintered at Cape Sheridan, Grant Land. Feb. 15, 1909 he started with a sledge train for the pole. On April 6, the pole was reached, the crowning triumph of twenty-three years of heroic effort. Returning he reached Indiana Harbor, Sept. 6, and announced by wireless “Stars and Stripes nailed to North Pole.” He was made rear admiral and received the thanks of congress. In 1913 he was made grand officer of the Legion d'Honneur, by the president of France.

Peary wrote Northward Over the Great Ice, Nearest the Pole, The North Pole, and Snowland Folk.

His wife wrote, My Arctic Journal, The Snow Baby, and Children of the Arctic. (See Polar Exploration.)

Peasants' War, an insurrection of the German peasantry, which broke out in 1524, against the oppressions they were suffering at the hands of the nobility and clergy. For a short time it seemed that the peasants would carry everything before them, as they defeated the army sent against them by Archduke Ferdinand, under the command of Von Waldburg; and a number of princes and knights concluded treaties with them, conceding their principal demands. But, unfortunately, the conduct of the insurgents did not accord with the moderation of their demands, as they destroyed convents and castles (more than 1,000 in all), murdered, pillaged and committed other great excesses. In May and June, 1525, they sustained a number of crushing defeats, and were soon after completely overthrown. Multitudes were hanged in the streets, and others were put to death with the most terrible tortures. It is estimated that 150,000 lives were lost during the short period of the Peasants' War.

Peat, a substance formed by the decomposition of plants in marshes and morasses; it is also sometimes described as a kind of soil formed by the remains of mosses and other marsh-plants. The remains of plants are often so well-preserved in peat that their species can be easily determined; but in the northern parts of the world it is chiefly formed from certain kinds or species of bog-moss. These mosses grow in very wet places, and throw out new shoots from their upper parts, while their lower parts are decaying and forming peat, so that shallow pools are gradually changed into bogs. Moist peat is a decided and powerful antiseptic, as is shown in the preservation not only of ancient trees, leaves and fruits but of animal bodies. It is claimed that in some instances human bodies have been found preserved in peat after the lapse of centuries. Peat is formed only in the colder regions of the world, as in warmer regions vegetable substances decompose too rapidly. Peat is largely used for fuel in Holland, Denmark, Scotland, Ireland and other European countries, and efforts have been made to bring it into more general use by compressing its bulk, but although numerous machines have been invented and patented for this purpose, the enterprise has not yet proved a complete success.

THE DISCOVERER OF THE NORTH POLE

REAR ADMIRAL ROBERT E. PEARY

Copyright by
Doubleday, Page & Co.

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PEBBLE

1437

PEDAGOGICS

COLLARED PECCARY

Peb'ble, a small, round, water-worn stone of any kind, but with jewelers sometimes agates — agates being frequently found as loose pebbles in streams, those of Scotland being designated as Scotch pebbles. Deposits of pebbles occur among the rocks of all periods; but the older pebbles are seldom loose; they are generally cemented together by iron oxide, lime or silica. Pecan. See HICKORY. Pec'cary, a small pig-like animal inhabiting the forests of the New World. There

are two species. The more northern or collared peccary occurs as far north as Red River in Arkansas, and ranges south to Rio Negro in Patagonia. This species is about three feet long; it occurs singly or in small herds of eight or ten, and is comparatively harmless. The white-lipped peccary is about forty inches long, and, like the collared peccary, is covered with thick, bristly hair. Its range is between Paraguay and British Honduras. They occur in herds of fifty to one hundred or more, and are dangerous when excited. Both kinds live on roots, fruits, worms and the like. In cultivated districts they are destructive to crops.

Peck, Harry Thurs'ton, a critic, author and language scholar, was born in 1856 at Stamford, Conn. In 1881 he graduated from Columbia University, where in 1888 he became professor of Latin and, after several years, instructor in Sanskrit and Latin. Professor Peck was an editor of Harper's Classical Dictionary, The International Encyclopedia and the New International Encyclopaedia. He is editor of The Bookman, and is the author of many reviews and of The Semitic Theory of Creation; Suetonius; A Manual of Latin Pronunciation; The Personal Equation; a volume of verse entitled Gray stone and Porphyry; What is Good English? and The Adventures of Mabel.

Pedagogics (ped-d-goj'lks). The term pedagogics as now used embraces the whole field of education, though formerly it was restricted to the formal phases of the subject, as school organization, methodology and the philosophy of education.

There are certain subconscious forces always at work in the education of the youth as well as of the adult, which in a general way may be denominated his environments. These are the environments of the age as well as of the community. The movements and sentiments of the world at large often affect the youth in a profound manner. This is more true in these days

of rapid transit and intercontinental telegraphic communication than formerly. Great economic, political, international and social movements in any part of the globe quickly attract the attention of the reading youth, provoking more or less sympathetic discussion, with consequent enlightenment and enlargement of conceptions of the problems involved. Thus the world-spirit of an age exercises influence in the education of the youth, particularly among civilized nations.

In like manner the institutions of one's own country and community, including every private and public interest which touches their lives, are active factors in the intellectual and moral development of the people. The community-spirit, though influenced largely by the world-spirit has a distinct and positive character of its own that in certain directions is often more potent than the formal educational machinery of the schoolroom. It affects the- ideals, language, occupations, tastes, manners and customs of every one in such a way that he easily reveals his locality wherever he goes. The various institutions of civilization — church, home, press, scientific and professional associations, political and fraternal organizations, commercial and industrial unions, each of them making a more or less formal attempt at education in certain lines — conspire to educate the masses of the people of all classes and of all ages. The fact that these different forces often are antagonistic to each other does not in any way lessen their efficiency as educational factors.

It will readily be conceded that, however universal and effective these influences may be, at best they accomplish little in systematic development of the activities of the child. They serve rather to contribute a continuous stream of varied information, to stimulate interest, to shape sentiment and to influence conduct.

The systematic development of the activities of the child, which is the true end of formal education, can be accomplished only by the directing influence of an individual will; a will which sets up an ideal which the child is to realize and then proceeds in a methodical way to help it realize that ideal. Herein is found the specific function of the teacher. For this purpose the school is organized, equipped and maintained. It anticipates the larger life of the community and of the adult by so developing his activities as to fit him for the wider sphere of action to which he is destined. It strives to give that freedom in thought and action which will make him independent, self-reliant and successful in the affairs of life.

All the activities of the child emanate from the will. The will performs a double function. It sets up ideals and then sets about to realize them. In childhood the imitative impulse is strong, and the child

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finds great satisfaction in taking its ideals from the concrete examples about it, imitating them with great facility. Thus it learns to walk, to talk, to do a thousand things. The ideational impulses are also active and with the enlargement of its experience, under proper guidance, gradually displace the purely imitative impulses and enable the child to think and act more or less independently of the suggestions of his surroundings. Whereas his environments were molding him before, he now begins to mold his environments. This mutual reaction of the individual will and the community's will, resulting in the individual will becoming the dominating power, cancels the further need for assistance from the teacher and the school.

It is the function of the teacher to encourage in every possible way the imitative or realizing activities of the child, but it is even more important that he with great wisdom continually stimulate the exercise of the idealizing activities — perception, memory, imagination, judgment, thinking, reasoning. To this end a knowledge of the genesis, nature and laws of development of the intellectual activities of the child is essential as a basis for successful teaching. The intimate relationship between the mental and the bodily activities also requires a similar knowledge of physiology and hygiene. As the emotional and volitional life of the child gives vitality to both, the preparation of the teacher includes not only a comprehensive study of the child's physical and mental organism but of the child in action as well; of the child at home, at his plays, at work, alone, with his fellows, in his moods, in his studies; of the normal and the abnormal child, of the child's motives, of the child in the different stages of his development and in the processes of transition from one stage to another.

With such an acquaintance with child-nature, the teacher is able to enter upon a study of the underlying principles of education and of the methods by which it is to be accomplished. The following-named elementary books will prove of great value in studying the genesis, nature, function and laws of the mental life of the child: The Study of the Child, Taylor; The Mental Development of the Child, Preyer; Psychology and Psychic Culture, Halleck; Inductive Psychology, Kirkpatrick; Primer of Psychology, Ladd; The Study of Children, Warner; Thinking, Feeling, Doing, Scripture; Psychology in the Schoolroom, Dexter and Garlic; and The Story of a Child, Loti. See, also, The Psychologic Foundations of Education, Harris.

The nature of education appears only as one clearly understands the nature of the act of learning. The nature of the act of learning is apprehended only as one clearly sees the nature and function of the self-activity of the child. That self-activity,

generically speaking, is its will. It manifests itself in feelings, cognitions and external actions, embracing the whole range of the child's conscious life. It is incited to action by sense stimuli from within or from without the body and responds by making attempts to locate them in space and discover their characteristics and relations. This effort, if successful, is called the act of learning. By it the child simply relates a present sensation or experience to a past experience, that is, connects them in the mind by virtue of their common elements and puts the new experience where it belongs. This process of transforming the new and strange into the familiar by associating, comparing and identifying it with things already familiar, is the form which every act of learning takes and is called the apperceptive process. In this way we get the meaning of things. For an elaboration of the nature and function of the apperceptive process see Lange's Apperception, De Garmo; A Pot of Green Feathers, Rooper; The Study of the Child, Taylor; Herbartian Psychology Applied to Education, Adams; Talks to Teachers, James; Psychology, Dewey; and almost any late work on mental science.

The act of learning in getting original knowledge may be accomplished (a) by the observation of things, particularly of things in action; (b) by experimentation; and (c) by means of the reasoning process. The first two may result in direct perception forming simple, or by apperception, complex mental pictures of objects. They also furnish the percepts, the images, the materials out of which the reasoning processes may elaborate general notions and principles (induction) or to which they may apply notions and principles already formed (deduction). Every notion is built up of elements derivecl through observation, experimentation and reasoning. Hence the importance of cultivating habits of accuracy and many-sidedness in sense-perception.

The reasoning process is the highest form of knowledge-getting, and, properly exercised, continually reacts upon the other two, increasing their range and power. As a result, the growing child, at each step in his progress, is able to interpret many new experiences immediately, by simple apperception, which in a previous stage would have required even laborious reasoning.

The preparation for teaching has made great progress when the prospective teacher fully understands the details of the processes involved in the act of learning, for teaching is simply the art of stimulating and guiding the self-activity of the child to economical and speedy accomplishment of that act. Here again appears the necessity for an intimate acquaintance with the nature and functions of the child's mental activities.

How may the teacher assist the child in the effort to learn?

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As a prerequisite, it is necessary for the teacher to discover the degree of the child's familiarity with the elements of the subject under consideration. If he has little or no acquaintance with it, the object should be presented, and a variety of methods used to encourage him in the formation of a picture of it and of its relations to other objects, its uses etc. If an object is not available, the next means in order of desirability would be a model, a colored picture, a photograph, a drawing and, lastly, a verbal description. Even though the object be at hand, the others will be found valuable, in the order given, to lead the child gradually away from the necessity of the object itself, to be able to produce a mental picture of it from its merest outline in chalk or pencil or from a verbal description only. By means of the multitude of objects round about him the teacher may stimulate the child's powers of observation to an almost unlimited degree.

If the child already has some acquaintance with the subject under consideration or with its types, the teacher may help him to recognize that fact by assisting him to identify the common elements, thus enabling him the more easily and quickly to understand the new elements and form a familiar mental picture of the whole.

Should the child be familiar with some of the elements under consideration and have sufficient ability to follow reasoning processes, the teacher may aid him by leading him carefully from one point to another until he gets its full meaning. In this way he may be taught how to trace the relations of part to the whole, of cause to effect, of identity and difference.

These three attitudes or stages in which the child's mind may be with reference to any subject are called sense-perception, imagination and the logical or thinking stage. As sense-perception is predominant in the early years of the child's life, that term is then applied in a general way to his method of getting knowledge, though the other two methods are rapidly coming into prominence. From six to 12 his picture-forming activities — conception, memory and imagination—make a large part of his mental life. At about 12 the power to reason abstractly is usually recognized as a strong factor in knowledge-getting, particularly if the child has been properly educated. The interdependence and interaction of these lower and higher activities in the act of learning demand quick discernment and wise adjustment on the part of the teacher to the pupil's needs. It is a great mistake to encourage the child to depend upon his lower activities in an act of learning, when he might be using the higher ones.

While it is important that the child be trained to observe, investigate and form his own ideas about the objects with which

he comes in contact every day, his ability is greatly increased as he learns how to use books as aids in his efforts at knowledge-getting. It is important that books be introduced in such a way that the pupil will be constantly multiplying and enlarging his capacity to interpret his increasing range of experiences and the problems which they involve. The act of learning as such, however important, should always be regarded by the teacher as but the process by which the self-activity of the child is developing. Each act in perception, in forming ideals or in realizing them reacts upon the self-activity, increasing its power and range proportionately at every step. The law of the reaction is this:

However objectively engaged the mind may be, the reaction upon the self-activity in exercise is the same as if it were acting directly upon itself, if that were possible,

These reactions in the act of learning, whether in forming or realizing ideals, result in habits which always are the test of mental capacity and executive skill. It is through the formation of them that all growth is attained, that power to solve the higher and the more complex problems of life is developed.

The importance of right methods of study and of right methods of instruction becomes more and more evident as this reactive effect of every act of the child is understood. For the purpose of educating the teacher properly for the responsible work of teaching four general lines of procedure have been recognized. These consist of the philosophy of education; methodology; school organization and management; and the history of education.

THE PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION. This includes an inquiry into the fundamental principles underlying the process of knowledge-getting, the development of the self-activities and the methods by which the teacher may co-operate with the child. The terms theory of education, principles of education, psychology applied to education, institutes of education, psychologic foundations of education etc. designate similar inquiries. They all strive to discover the philosophic basis of method in education, and in a general way cover the nature, limits, processes, means, special elements, phases, physical culture, intellectual culture, will-culture, ethical culture, aesthetic culture and a variety of kindred problems. The following treatises are among the most useful now published on general theoretical pedagogy: The Philosophy of Education, Rosenkranz; A Manual of Pedagogics, Putnam; Lectures on Teaching, Compayre'; The Philosophy of Teaching, Tompkins; Outlines of Pedagogics, Rein; Pedagogics of the Kindergarten, Froebel; The Method of Recitation, McMurry; Theory and Practice of Teaching, Page; Education of the Central

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Nervous System, Halleck; Education as a Science, Bain; Education, Spencer; Lectures on Teaching, Fitch; Interest in its Relation to Pedagogy, Ostermann (translation by Shaw); Contributions to the Science of Education, Payne; Education of Man, Froebel. The Transactions of the -National Educational Association, Barnard's American Journal of Education and many state reports contain mines of information on theoretical and practical pedagogy.

METHODOLOGY or the art of applying educational principles in teaching has called forth a great variety of treatises on special and general methods. They usually treat of the formal methods of arousing the child's interest, of presenting the subject-matter in the different stages of the child's development, of conducting the recitation, of cultivating the various physical and mental activities of the child and of the essentials in conditions and means. Methodology usually includes more or less of a discussion of the principles involved in the methods presented. The following books treat the subject in an instructive and practical way: Method in Education, Roark; School Management and Methods, Baldwin; School Management, White; Methods of Teaching, Swett; Talks on Teaching, Parker; and Hours with my Pupils, Phelps.

SCHOOL ORGANIZATION AND MANAGEMENT. These, as somewhat distinct problems, call for elaborate treatment. They embrace plans of organization, sources of revenue, selection of school sites, erection of school buildings, seating, ventilating, lighting and sanitation; courses of study, choice of textbooks, classification of pupils, preparation and examination of teachers, general supervision of the school, the authority of the teacher, management of classes, rules of conduct, modes of punishment, presentation of motives and relation of teacher and pupils. The student is referred to the following authorities for general treatment of these problems: School Economy, Wickersham; School Supervision, Payne; School Interests and Duties, King; School Management, White; School Management, Kellogg; Theory and Practice of Teaching, Page; Systems of Education, Gill; and School Hygiene, Kotelmann (Bergstrom's translation).

THE HISTORY OF EDUCATION. A liberal professional preparation for teaching is hardly possible without a comparative study of educational progress as shown in past and present educational systems. It may take either of two general forms: That of education as a whole or that of formal pedagogy in particular. If the former, the field includes a history of the growth of all branches of learning and of the various institutions of civilization in

feneral; if the latter, it is limited to the evelopment of educational doctrine and

the growth of systems and methods. There are commonly recognized five great epochs in educational history: the Oriental, the Classical, the Christian before the Reformation, the Reformation and the Modern Epoch. Each epoch is rich in instructive material, throwing light upon nearly every problem which the teacher meets and helping him to a more comprehensive view of the methods by which they may be solved The following are among the standard texts on this subject: Compayre", Painter, Seeley and Williams. See, also, Boone's Education in the United States, Swett's American Public Schools, Klem's European Schools, Quick's Educational Reformers, Laurie's Rise and Early Constitution of Universities, Lang's Great Teachers of Four Centuries, Browning's Educational Theories, Butler's Great Educators, Winshir/s Great American Educators and the histories of education in the different states of the Union, published by the United States bureau of education.

The methods of teaching as well as the subject-matter must vary with the age and capacity of the pupil. In. the earlier years nature-study^ supplies an abundance of material which may be used to introduce the elements of knowledge. The ability to correlate these elements in a systematic way and, in the advancing grades, gradually to differentiate them into the particular branches of knowledge developing from them requires great skill on the part of the teacher. A brief survey of nature-study and a few other subjects, with suggestions for teaching them will illustrate scientific method.

Among other titles in this work relating to the general subject of pedagogics are ADOLESCENCE; APPERCEPTION; ARITHMETIC; ASSOCIATION OP IDEAS; CHILD-STUDY; CORRELATION OF STUDIES; DRAWING; EDUCATION, HISTORY OF; EDUCATION, MODERN; FEELING; FROEBEL; GAMES; GEOGRAPHY, TEACHING OF; GRAMMAR; HABIT; HISTORY, TEACHING OF; INTEREST; KINDERGARTEN; LANGUAGE-STUDY; LIBRARIES, How TO USE; LITERATURE FOR CHILDREN; MANUAL TRAINING; MEMORIZING; MENTAL DISCIPLINE; NATURE-STUDY; NORMAL SCHOOLS; PENMANSHIP; PHYSICAL EDUCATION; PSYCHOLOGY FOR TEACHERS; READING, TEACHING OF; SCHOOLS; SCHOOL EXCURSIONS; SCHOOL SANITATION; SCHOOL ORGANIZATION; SELF-ACTIVITY; SPELLING; STUDY; TEACHING, METHOD OF; and TEACHERS' INSTITUTES.

Ped'icel, the stalk of an individual flower. When a flower has no pedicel, it is said to be sessile.

Pedom'eter, an instrument used for measuring walking distances by marking the number of steps taken. It is also so constructed as to mark the revolutions of a carriage wheel when attached to it.

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Pe'dro I of Brazil, born near Lisbon in 1798, dying there in 1834, was the first emperor of Brazil and the second son of John VI of Portugal. In 1807 he fled to Brazil with his parents on Napoleon's invasion of Portugal, and became prince regent of Brazil on his father's return to Portugal See BRAZIL and PORTUGAL.

Pedro II, son of the foregoing, was born at Rio de Janeiro, Dec. 2, 1825, became king on his father's abdication in 1831, and was declared of age in 1840. During his long reign he was distinguished by his love of learning and scholarly tastes, and manifested no small degree of devotion to the welfare and prosperity of his people; but in the revolution of 1889, when Brazil was declared a republic, he was forced to abdicate and withdraw to Europe. He died at Paris in 1891. See BRAZIL and PORTUGAL.

Pedro the Cruel, king of Castile and Leon3 was born at Burgos, in Spain, Aug. 30, 1333. He was the only legitimate son of Alfonso XI, whom he succeeded in 1350. Three years after his accession he married Blanche de Bourbon, sister of the French king, but soon deserted her for his mistress, Dona Maria of Portugal, whose relatives he raised to the highest offices in his kingdom. Among many other victims of his cruelty were two of his natural brothers, whom he put to^ death. At length an insurrection was raised against him, under the leadership of his natural brother Henry. This he suppressed in spite of the excommunication of the pope, and the remainder of his reign was devoted to establishing his power and authority over his enemies and to long and bloody wars with Aragon and Granada. In 1366 Henry, who had fled to Prance, returned at the head of a body of exiles and revived his claims to the throne. Henry was supported by the pope, by^ Aragon and by France; but Pedro, by promises of money and territory, secured the assistance of Edward the Black Prince, and totally defeated Henry at Navarrete, April 13, 1367. Pedro so disgusted Edward by his cruelty to the vanquished, that the latter returned to France with his army, refusing any further alliance with a prince of such a character. In the autumn Henry returned with an additional force, the people flocking to his standard. Pedro's army was completely routed at Montiel, March 13, 1369, and he himself taken prisoner. He was carried to a tent, where a single combat took place between him and Henry, in which Pedro was slain.

Pedun'cle, the general stalk of a flower cluster.

Peeks'kill, N. Y., a pretty and historic borough in Westchester County, on the Hudson River and on the New York Central Railroad, 43 miles north of New York City. It has a number of manufactories, stove-works, foundries, machine shops, shirt

and cigar factories, flour mills and blank-book and bookbinding establishments. The town has many fine churches, schools, a public library, military academy, convent and an Episcopal school for young women. Population 15*245.

Peel, Sir Robert, an eminent English statesman, was born near Bury, in Lancashire, Feb. 5, 1788. He entered the house of commons in 1809 as a Tory, and immediately began to show the diligence and prudence that were marked features of his character. He held the office of secretary for Ireland from 1812 to 1818, and in this position displayed so unfriendly a spirit toward the Roman Catholics that they gave him the nickname of Orange Peel, which clung to him through life. From 1818 to 1822 Peel was out of office; but in the latter year he re-entered the ministry as home secretary, though in 1827 he retired. As home secretary he distinguished himself by a reorganization of the London police (q. v.) and by several other important measures. In 1820 Peel, as a member of the Wellington cabinet, proposed the bill for Catholic emancipation, and thereby separated himself from the Tory leaders. Next year (1830) the Wellington-Peel ministry was succeeded by a Whig ministry under Earl Grey, and in 1832 the reform bill was passed in spite of Peel's vigorous opposition. The general election of 1841 resulting in a decided victory for protection, Peel became prime minister with a large majority in both houses; but such was the demand for *'cheap corn," that Peel was forced to yield and consent to the repeal of the corn laws. Peel retired in June, 1846, and, as a member of Parliament for Tarn worth, generally acted with the Whigs, whose free-trade principles he had fully accepted. He died at London in consequence of a fall from his horse, July 2, 1850. Peel declined a peerage and the order of the garter, and was universally respected for ability as well as patriotism and high moral principle. See Guizot's Robert Peel; Peel by J. R. Thurs-field in the Twelve English Statesmen Series; and Morley's Life of Cobden.

Pegasus (peg'd-sus), in Grecian mythology, the winged horse which sprang from the blood of Medusa (q. y.) when she was slain by Perseus. He is said to have received his name because he first made his appearance beside the springs (pegai) of Oceanus. When Bellerophon sought to catch Pegasus for his combat with the Chimsera, he was advised to sleep in the temple of Minerva, and during his sleep the goddess^ appeared to him and gave him a golden bridle, with which he caught Pegasus, and by her aid overcame the Chimera.

Peisistratos (pi-sis'-trd-tos) was a tyrant of Athens, the date of whose birth is uncertain, but who died in 527 B. C. Peisistratos gained his influence at the first by posing

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as the protector of the poor. He identified himself, therefore, with the party of the hills. He claimed that his life was in danger from the attacks of his enemies, showed wounds which probably were made for the purpose, and was granted a bodyguard. Once in possession of an armed force, Peisistratos seized the citadel. He governed Athens well and wisely, and twice submitted to exile only to regain his power. The word tyrant as applied to him means little more than ruler; and became obnoxious only at a later date.

Pekirt' or Peking', the northern capital of the Chinese empire, is situated on a sandy plain 100 miles from the sea (Gulf of Pe-chili) and 60 from the great Chinese wall. The city consists of two parts: The northern or Tartar city and the southern or Chinese city. The northern city is surrounded by a wall 60 feet high and from 40 to 50 wide, and the southern city by a wall 30 feet high and from 15 to 25 feet wide. The wall and moat are a little over 20 miles in length. Not counting the cross-wall, the entire circuit measures about 21 miles, inclosing an area of about 25 square miles. Peking has sixteen gates, over each of which is raised a tower 100 feet high and of imposing appearance. Within the northern city is the Tsze-kin-ch'ing or Prohibited City, with a circumference of two miles, where the emperor has his residence. Peking has railway communication with Tien-tsin and with the Gulf of Pe-chili at or near Taku.

Peking is one of the most ancient cities of the world. On the same site stood the metropolis of the feudal state of Yen, whose history can be traced back to the i2th century B. C. When Kublai Khan became emperor of all China in 1280 A. D., he made Peking his capital, where he was found by Marco Polo. In the language of Dr. Williams "Peking stands to-day, like the capitals of the ancient Roman and Byzantine empires, upon the debris of centuries of buildings." But little was known of the city, however, until 1860, when the English and French armies appeared before its walls and compelled the emperor to conclude the treaty of Tien-tsin or have his capital destroyed. Since that time the Chinese government has permitted ambassadors of other nations to have a residence in Peking, although they are not allowed to enter Tsze-kin-ch'ing or Forbidden City. See BOXER RISING and CHINESE EMPIRE. The population is estimated at 700,000. See Williamson's Journeys in North China; Williams' The Middle Kingdom; and Martin's The Siege in Peking.

Pekin (pe'k%n), 111., city and county-seat of Tazewell County, about n miles from Peoria. It is in a fertile, agricultural section, the chief products of which are corn and wheat, and in the vicinity are extensive coal deposits. Pekin manufactures agricultural implements, wagons and carriages, fertilizers,

organs, furniture, foundry products, ammonia, alcohol, beet-sugar, glucose, brick and tile. There are admirable public schools and a free library. Pekin has the service of several railroads, and has freight and passenger traffic by steamboat with ports on Illinois River. Population 9»897-

Pelas'gians, a term applied to the most ancient inhabitants of Greece, Italy and some portions of Asia Minor. In Homer the Pelasgi seem to have been an unimportant tribe living in Thessaly. Herodotus seems to regard them as a race of barbarians who had occupied Hellas prior to the Hellenes. Thucydides, on the other hand, says that they were the most numerous of the various races that inhabit Greece. Amid such conflicting testimony it is impossible to form any definite conclusions in reference to the Pelasgians; but we are at least justified in regarding them as an active and stirring people, chiefly intent upon agricultural pursuits. Yet they were no less brave and determined when attacked and driven to self-defense.

Pelew' Islands, a group of about twenty-five islands (now under the protection of Germany), lying southeast of the Philippines in the Pacific, at the western extremity of the Caroline Archipelago. These islands are mountainous, wooded and surrounded with coral reefs. Total area, 170 square miles. The inhabitants, about 10,000 in number, belong to the Ma*ay race. The soil is fertile, and the climate healthy. The Pelew Islands were discovered by the Spaniards in 1543, and sold to Germany in 1899. Pel'lean, a water-bird with webbed feet and a long bill having a pouch on the under

surface. The upper part of the bill hooks over the lower. Pelicans are large birds with powerful wings, related to the cormorants and the gan-nets. They occur in the Old and New "Worlds, being mostly confined to the tropics and the warm parts of the temperate regions. They live upon fish, and at times the pouch on the lower jaw is greatly distended with stored fish to be eaten at leisure or carried home to the young. In southern California and Florida the brown pelican is a familiar object. This bird is about fifty inches long with a wing-spread of more than six feet, a bill a foot long and a purple pouch. After becoming three years old the bird is of varying shades of brown, the neck a very dark

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PELOPONNESUS

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brown broken by white. These birds show themselves friendly to man as well as social among themselves. They nest in large colonies, a notable colony possessing Pelican Island in Indian River, Florida. Their fishing in the ocean breakers is thus described by Hornaday: "They sail so near the water it seems a wonder it does not strike them; but they rise over the incoming waves and lower again into the trough with the utmost precision, always keenly alert. All of a sudden, the wings are thrown out of gear, and a fountain of flying spray tells the story of the plunge with open pouch for the luckless fish." In Florida another bird of the same family once abounded, the great white pelican, but it is now rare. It is a bird of noble size, sixty-one inches in length, with spread of wings of over eight feet. Every summer a colony breeds in Yellowstone Park, and in winter the white pelican is found in Texas. See Hornaday's American Natural History.

Peloponnesus (pel'o-pon-ne'sits), a peninsula, now called the Morea, which' formed the southern part of ancient Greece, so called by the Greeks, because it almost is an island and Pelops was said to have founded a colony. It is about 140 miles long and nearly the same distance in extreme breadth. It is connected with northern Greece by the Isthmus of Corinth, which separates the Gulf of Corinth from the Saronic Gulf. In the center a lofty circular ridge incloses an elevated basin, the famous vale of Arcadia. Among its ancient cities were Sparta, Argos, Mycenae and Mantinea. In modern Greece the term is applied to a group ol nomarchies or provinces, which among others embrace Argolis and Corinth, Achaia and Elis, Arcadia, Messina and Laconia. Its area is about 8,000 square miles, with a population of nearly 900,000.

Pe'Iops, in Grecian mythology, the grandson of Zeus and son of Tantalus. His father invited the gods to a banquet, and, in order to test their superior knowledge, killed Pelops and served his remains at the table. They were not deceived and refused to touch the horrible food set before them; but De-meter, absorbed with grief for the loss of her daughter, ate part of a shoulder without knowing what kind of flesh it was. The gods then ordered the remains to be thrown into a cauldron, out of which Clotho brought the boy alive, an ivory shoulder being given in place of the one eaten. Hence his descendants, the Pelopidae, were said to have one shoulder white.

Pern'broke, Ont., county-seat of Renfrew County, lies on the southerly bank of Ottawa River at the point called, because of its greater width. Lake Allumette. The islet opposite, bearing the same name, marks the farthest point reached by Champlain in 1613 during his exploration and discovery of the Ottawa valley. A large trade in

sawed lumber is done, and considerable manufacturing of other kinds. The city is the principal settlement of upper Ottawa Valley. Population 5,156.

Pem'mican, a condensed food made by cutting lean meat into thin strips and, after thoroughly drying them, reducing them to powder and mixing the substance with boiling fat. It is much used by Arctic voyagers.

Pen (from the Latin penna, a feather), an instrument for writing with fluid ink. When the ancients wrote upon papyrus or parchment, they used a reed, and when they used tablets of wood or stone they wrote with a pointed stylus of bone or other material. Reed-pens are still used by Persia and some other countries, as a metal pen does not suit their mode of writing. The Chinese and Japanese write with a small brush or hair pencil. When paper was introduced into Europe for writing purposes, quill-pens came into general use and continued in use to the beginning of the igth century. The first English patent for the manufacture of steel pens was issued to Bryan Donkin in 1803; but the credit of bringing them into general use should be divided among James Perry, John Mitchell, Joseph Gillott and Sir Josiah Mason. Perry began pen-making at Manchester in 1819, using the best Sheffield steel for the purpose. He removed to London and had developed the pen-trade to tolerably large proportions before the Birmingham manufacturers caused a revolution by the invention of machinery in the manufacture of pens, thus enabling them to be sold cheaply and become articles of common use. The growth of the trade may be seen from the fact that the weekly average of pens manufactured in Birmingham is 30,000,-ooo. The manufacture of gold-pens has progressed to a much greater extent in the United States than in any other country, the annual product amounting to nearly $2,000,000 in value. The gold-pen goes through no less than forty-five processes, from the gold bar purchased from the assay office to the highest finished article of commerce To give hardness to the point of the pen it is tipped with iridium. The United States imports half a million gross of steel-pens annually and manufactures nearly two million gross at Camden, Meriden and Philadelphia, the steel used being chiefly imported from Birmingham. In the stylograph or fountain-pen the nib is dispensed with, a finely tapered point connecting with the barrel containing the ink. The first fountain-pen was brought out in 1848.

Penang', an island in the Strait of Ma-lakka, lying off the Malay Peninsula, between it and Sumatra, belonging to Great Britain. With Singapore, Wellesley and Malakka it forms the crown-colony of Straits Settlements. It comprises an area of 107 square miles and contains about 250,000 inhabitants. The coast is very irregular, be

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PENGUIN

ing indented by several bays. The surface is intersected by a range, the highest point of which is about half a mile above the sea. The soil is fertile, and rice, tapioca, pepper, cloves, nutmegs and other tropical fruits and vegetables are grown. Georgetown, in the north, is the capital. It has a good harbor and considerable trade, Adjoining native states are under British protection, and contain the richest tin-fields in the world, besides valuable forests yielding rubber, gutta-percha and gums. In 1906 the exports were $90,709,225, and the imports $94,546,112.

Pen'cil. A slender stick of black lead, slate or chalk, inclosed in a round piece of wood is called a pencil, but the term is also applied to small hair-brushes, used by artists, and to these the name was originally given. For a long time graphite or plumbago from the Cumberland mines in England furnished the "leads" for the best pencils ever made; and since these mines were exhausted vast quantities of the same material have been found in Siberia. By a method patented by Brockedon in 1843 ^m"s material is freed from impurities by grinding it to powder, and is then formed into solid blocks by subjecting it to heavy pressure in cases from which the air is removed. The manufacture of black lead and colored pencils is carried on extensively at Nuremberg, where there are more than twenty factories, which employ several thousand hands and annually produce about 250,-000,000 pencils.

Pen'dulum, literally a hanging body, is used in physics to denote any body performing isochronous or nearly isochronous vibrations. (Isochronous means equal-timed). Thus a magnet freely suspended so as to vibrate in a horizontal plane is sometimes called a magnetic pendulum. An ordinary clock pendulum is called a gravitational pendulum. A brass rod, so suspended by a wire as to vibrate in a horizontal plane, is generally known as a torsion pendulum. Space permits us to discuss only the gravitational pendulum. This simple but elegant instrument serves two principal purposes, each of which was first pointed out by Huygens, the great Dutch physicist (3[673;. One use is that of a time-measurer, an application based on the fact that, so long as a pendulum remains of constant length and swings through the same angle, it vibrate® at a constant rate. In practice its length is kept constant by "compensation" and its angle of swing is kept constant by means of a spring which gives it a little push at each vibration. (See CLOCK.) The second use is as an instrument for measuring the acceleration of gravity at various points over the surface of the earth. This is generally done in two ways* (i) By suspending a heavy metallic sphere of known radius by means of a fine wire of known length and observing the period of vibra-

tion; or (2) by suspending a bar of * metal from one of two such points that it has the same period of vibration from whichever point it be suspended. The former method is a near approximation of what is called a simple pendulum, namely, a heavy particle suspended by a massless thread; the latter is a reversible compound pendulum. It can be proved by dynamics that the period, T, of a simple pendulum whose length is I, is given by the equation

where g is the acceleration of gravity at the place of observation. Using this equation for the brass ball, suspended by a wire, and making some slight corrections for the wire and for the diameter of the ball, one may obtain quite an accurate value of the acceleration of gravity. This method is due to Borda. In the case of the reversible pendulum it can be shown that the distance between the two points of suspension is exactly equal to the length of a simple pendulum which would vibrate with the same period. Hence, to obtain g with great accuracy, one has only to measure this distance, which we may call I, determine the period, T, and solve for g the equation given above.

The pendulum is frequently employed also to compare the acceleration of gravity at several different places. Here we may disregard the length of the pendulum, provided this remains constant, since the ratio of the acceleration at two stations depends only upon the square of the ratio of the periods at the same two stations. For this purpose the United States Coast Survey uses pendulums which are very short and convenient, beating quarter-seconds.

Penguin (pen'gwtn), a swimming bird peculiar to the southern hemisphere. The birds are diving swimmers. They are very awkward on land, but wonderfully expert in water. It is said they can outswim fish. Their wings, which do not suffice for flying, are paddle-shaped, and in swimming are brought alternately into use. In diving and in swimming under water only the wings are used, the feet serving as a rudder. The feet are placed so far back on the body that the bird is erect when standing. They have a smooth, scale-like plumage adapted for slipping through the water. The birds live mostly on the water and go on shore

KING PENGUIN

PENINSULAR WAR

1445

PENMANSHIP

only to breed. During the breeding-season xh?y are found in great numbers on rocky islands far from habitations, as on the Falk-lands, Kerguelen Islands and rocky parts of New Zealand. There are about twenty species; the emperor penguin is the largest of them all, one specimen weighing 78 pounds. The emperor stands about three and a half feet high, has a coat that reminds us rather of fish-scales than feathers; its front is white, head black, legs and feet feathered to the claws. It is thus graphically described by Hornaday: "In its erect posture its wings seem like arms, and its queer manner of talking, scolding and prying into man's affairs makes this bird seem more like a feathered caricature of a big, fat iiuman being than an ordinary diving bird."

Penin'sular War. The quarrels between Charles IV king of Spain (q. v.) and Ferdinand, his son, gave Mapoleon an opportunity (1807) of interfering in the affairs of that country. In pursuance of a treaty with Charles (q. v.) he had sent an army into Portugal under Junot (q. v,), by whom Lisbon was seized, and the members of the royal house were obliged to flee to Brazil. For the pretended purpose of supporting Junot's army other French troops occupied Valladolid, Salamanca and other important positions in Spain, including Madrid where Murat was in command. Riots at Madrid, Toledo and other places caused the feeble king such alarm that he surrendered his crown to Napoleon, who at once bestowed it upon Joseph, his brother, then king of Naples. Joseph Bonaparte was accordingly proclaimed on July 24, 1808. But the Spanish provinces refused to recognize Joseph, and rose against the French in all directions. Assistance was supplied to the patriots of Spain and Portugal (q. v.) by Great Britain; and on the i2th of July, 1808, Sir Arthur Wellesley (afterwards Duke of Wellington) was sent to Portugal with 30,000 men. Wellesley defeated Laborde at Rolica and Junot at Vimiera, but Sir H. Dalrymple concluded the convention of Cintra with the French, who evacuated Portugal during September, 1808. Napoleon continued to send large re-enforcements to Spain and came to Madrid to direct the operations of his forces; and when Wellesley was again sent out, in the spring of 1809, he found himself confronted by nearly 400,000 French troops, in eight army-corps, commanded by six marshals and by Generals Junot and St. Cyr. Wellesley at once proceeded to active operations; but it took a conflict of five years and many hard-fought battles to drive the French forces out of Spain. For his services Wellesley was created Duke of Wellington (q. v.), and received $2,500,000 from the English parliament. This war is sometimes called the War of Spanish (or of Portuguese) Independence.

Pen'manship. The arx of handwriting as taught in the elementary school. Three typical systems of writing forms are taught

in American schools : the slant (dftj&ms) , the

, medial (jfsz&rrv) and the vertical system

The slant system represents the system of writing taught up to the present school generation. It was superseded by the vt 'tical system largely because of ease of teaching and the lessened strain in reading. At present the medial system, which is halfway between the other two systems, is becoming prevalent. The main requirements in the teaching of penmanship are legibility, speed, ease and individuality. The usual demand has been for legibility and speed. Since the typewriter and the stenographer have come into widespread use, the insistence upon a very high degree of accuracy of form and rapidity in copying has decreased, and some individuality in writing for ease in identification of signatures etc. has become more important relatively. The teaching of penmanship proper usually begins in the second school-year, slightly before the first work in written composition. Some move-

ment-exercises are sometimes given in the first year. The first work usually is with large forms upon the blackboard, the teacher setting the copy and the children imitating. Work in penmanship at the seats follows later, the pencil frequently preceding the use of pen and ink. In seat-work the copy either is set by the teacher or is taken from a printed copy-book. Much practice in the repetition of the copy follows, The exercises in the copy-books represent a gradation of difficulties from grade to grade. In some cases the copy is constantly kept before the child as a standard. In others it is used only for a short period, the child later comparing his own work with his image or standard of what the work ought to be. Dictation supplements the exercises, the final test being found in the penmanship that is seen in the child's compositions where the attention is mainly upon the expression of thought. One group of teachers strives for accuracy of form, at first letting the child write slowly, almost drawing the letters, and then gradually quickening the speed of writing. Where this is done, rapid movement-exercises with circles, ovals or other forms are given parallel to the slower writing of letters, words and sentences. Another group of instructors lays the emphasis upon rapidity of writing from the beginning, gradually striving for a more nearly correct form. Where individuality is a standard in the teaching of writing, the childern are first required to get correct form without any variation. When this is fairly-well achieved, such personal variations as appear and do not interfere seriously with legibility are allowed to persist. In obtaining greater accuracy and speed, the point is soon reached where a large amount of effort is required to make small gains. Further effort seems wasteful. Hence there is the very general tendency for penmanship to disappear as a specific subject about the end of the sixth or the seventh school-year. The rigid insistence upon a certain position of body, arm, hand and fingers which characterized the former teaching of penmanship is no longer found. The child's own comfortable position is allowed to a far greater degree, provided it does not interfere with hygienic considerations. The attempt to make children write by a whole-forearm movement has also been modified. Slight finger-movement is permitted in combination with the whole-arm movement.

Penn, William, founder of Pennsylvania, was the son of Admiral William Penn, and was born at London, Oct. 14, 1644. Penn studied at Christ Church, Oxford, and there became a convert to Quakerism. In 1668 Penn was thrown into London Tower on account of The Sandy Foundations Shaken. While in prison he wrote No Cross, No Crown and Innocency with Her Open Face. He was liberated through the influence of the Duke of York, afterward James II. In 1670 Admiral Penn died, leaving his son $7,500 a year and claims upon the government for $80,000. In 1681, in lieu of his monetary claim, Penn obtained territory comprising the present state of Pennsylvania. He desired to call it Sylvania, but Charles II insisted on the prefix Penn, in honor of his father. In October of 1682 he held his famous interview with the Indian tribes. Penn concluded a peaceful arrangement for the purchase of their lands, and for 50 years his colony remained unmolested by them. Penn planned and named Philadelphia, and for two years managed affairs in the wisest, most benevolent and liberal manner. Not Quakers only but persecuted members of other churches sought refuge in his colony, where religious toleration was fully recognized and respected. In 1684 Penn returned to England to exert his influence in favor of his persecuted brethren at home, in which he was so far successful that soon after James II came to the throne (1685) 1,200 imprisoned Quakers were set at liberty. After the accession of William III, Prince of Orange (1688), Penn was accused of treason and conspiracy, but was acquitted. In 1699 Penn paid a second visit to Pennsylvania, where his colony required his presence. His two years' stay was marked by many useful measures and by efforts to improve the condition, not only of the colonists, but of the Indians and negroes. He returned to England in 1701. When an agent of Penn's died, he left claims which the latter refused to pay, and was committed to Fleet Prison, where he remained until friends procured his release by settling the claims. He died on July 30, 1718.

Pen′nell, Joseph, an American artist and engraver, was born at Philadelphia in 1860. He married Elizabeth Robbins, and he and his wife have been almost continuously traveling, writing and sketching since 1885. In this time they have visited many of the cities of the Old World and sailed down most of its historic rivers. Pennell's works are numerous, all illustrated in that pen-and-ink style for which he is justly famous. His first book was A Canterbury Pilgrimage; the latest, Lithography and Lithographers.

Penn′sylva′nia. Pennsylvania is one of the oldest and richest of the eastern states. Its position in commerce and manufacturing is due largely to its geographical location. Extending from the estuary of the Delaware on the southeast to Lake Erie on the northwest and commanding, also, direct outlet by the Ohio to the Gulf of Mexico, Pennsylvania may justly claim advantages for internal and for foreign commerce second to none among the states of the Middle Atlantic group. The richness of its mines, the wealth of its forests, the productiveness of its fertile valleys and the unrivalled scenery of its splendid mountains and broad plateaus make Pennsylvania one of the first states of the Union. Its boundaries are, on the north, Lake Erie and New York; on the east, New York and New Jersey; on the south, Delaware, Maryland and West Virginia, on the west, West Virginia and Ohio. The Delaware River forms the entire eastern boundary. Area: 45,086 square miles. Population 7,665,111.

Surface. All the mountains are parts of the Appalachian system. Yet the state may be studied under four distinct divisions. The first, the Piedmont Belt, includes that part of the state between Delaware River and the Blue or Kittatinny Mountains. The second and third divisions, the Appalachian Mountains and the Great Valley, lie wholly within the main Appalachian system. Throughout this region are found many rugged mountain-walls forming gaps or narrows. The Susquehanna and the Delaware break through this chain. The Delaware, cutting diagonally across the Appalachian system, forms the famous Delaware Water-Gap. In this division is found also the famous Mt. Pocono region, now a summer playground for hundreds of tourists. The fourth division begins a little west of the center of the state, and consists of a series of high, rolling tablelands or plateaus known as the Allegheny Plateau. The entire western section of the state, from 1,000 to 1,500 feet above sea-level, is everywhere broken by short, fertile river-valleys. Blue Knob in Bedford County, with an altitude of about 3,136 feet, is believed to be the highest point in the state.

Climate. The climate is varied. Those portions lying southeast of the mountain ranges are considerably warmer than the more elevated and western uplands. In Philadelphia the mean temperature for January is about 30 degrees, and for July 76.2 degrees. For Wilkes-Barre, among the mountains, the corresponding figures are 26 and 71 degrees; for Pittsburg 31 and 76 degrees; and for Erie 26 and 70 degrees. In some sections summer heat is prolonged into the autumn and at times reaches 107 degrees, while in the northern and more elevated regions the cold of winter reaches 35 degrees below zero. The average annual rainfall is 44.5 inches, which is very evenly distributed. The growing season for any section of country depends upon the earliest and latest killing frosts. In Pennsylvania these extremes vary from five or six months in the northern parts to six or seven months in the southern section.

Natural Resources. Pennsylvania easily leads all other states in value of mineral products. Fully half of all coal mined in the United States comes from the Keystone State, and (in money value) about one sixth of all the mineral products of the country is taken from within its borders. The entire Appalachian bituminous coal-fields embrace about 71,000 square miles. About 18,000 square miles belong to Pennsylvania. Its anthracite fields cover about 500 square miles additional. In the northern and western parts are large deposits of natural gas and petroleum. Iron, in the forms of magnetite and brown hematite, is found in great quantities. Other minerals include zinc, cobalt, nickel, lead, copper, tin, chrome, salt and soapstone. Besides these, excellent brick and fire clay, white marble, slate and many other varieties of building-stone are found in almost inexhaustible quantities. The plateau region, with the middle section of the state, was originally covered with dense pine and hemlock forests. Then, too, there was a great abundance of white oak, hickory, chestnut, walnut and cherry in the lower altitudes. Pitch-pine, maple, beech and black and yellow birch were found in the middle altitudes, while still higher up were large quantities of black and red spruce, balsam, fir and larch. About 23,000 square miles are still counted as forested, and in some limited areas one may still find considerable virgin forest. A state forestry commission is now operative, and active measures are being taken to restore and more carefully preserve the forests. Fully 600,000 acres have already been set aside for this purpose. About 1859 petroleum was first known to exist in subterranean reservoirs. In August, 1859, the first boring was begun and after 22 days, at a depth of 69 feet, oil was “struck.” In the 30 years between 1860 and 1890 fully 1,000,000,000 barrels of petroleum were taken from Pennsylvania's wells. The production averages 13,000,000 barrels a year, the third largest amount in the Union.

Manufactures. Pennsylvania has ranked second in the United States in manufacturing industries since 1850. The manufacture of iron and steel is the most important industry. Two factors contribute to this preëminence: First, the great wealth of raw materials within the state and; second, the state's advantageous conditions for marketing its products. The mills at Johnstown and at Steelton are the largest Bessemer steel mills in the world. The money value of Pennsylvania's annual production of iron and steel is estimated at $430,000,000. Besides the iron and steel industries, Pennsylvania has large interests in the manufacture of tin and tin-plate and ship-building. In the manufacture of textiles Pennsylvania ranks second. Carpets, hosiery and knit goods, cotton and woolen goods and silk and silk-goods are produced in large quantities. The introduction of natural gas as a fuel is partly responsible for the great industrial activity of the state. In the manufacture of glass, the puddling of iron and the roasting of ores this fuel far surpasses any other. In the manufacture of coke and its by-products Pennsylvania leads all the states. In 1910 about 26,000,000 tons were produced, fully three-fourths of which came from the Connellsville district. In 1909 the total value of the products turned out by all the industries of the state was upwards of $2,626,000,000. The state's rapid growth in population is also largely due to her constantly increasing industrial activity. In the last half-century the population has increased from about 2,500,000 to over 7,665,000. The increase in the number of wage-earners was in the ratio of about one to six.

History. Many dates are set down as being “the first” in point of settlements made in Pennsylvania. Grants of territory for certain portions of the area now comprised within her boundaries were made, some as early as 1584, by Queen Elizabeth to Sir Walter Raleigh. In 1606 James I issued a patent to the London Company for lands between 34° and 41° N. In 1626 a trading-station was built. Swedes and Finns settled next year. In 1641 the English made a settlement on Schuylkill River. In 1632 Charles I issued a patent to Cecilius, second Lord Baltimore, which included all of Delaware and a considerable portion of southern Pennsylvania, The first actual settlement seems to have been made by Johann Printz, who, with other colonists, in 1643 founded New Gothenburg on Tinicum Island. On March 4, 1681, William Penn (q. v.) secured a grant of land west of Delaware River, lying between 40° and 43° and extending five degrees west. In this grant Penn was given full rights both as to the ownership and to the government of the land. Many difficulties grew out of the conflicting claims, but in 1763 all boundary difficulties were adjusted. The Mason and Dixon line (q. v.) was established. A provincial congress first met in July, 1774, in Philadelphia. A provincial convention in 1775 authorized the preparation of defence for the colony. Pennsylvania's first state constitution was drawn on Sept. 28, 1776. In this provision was made for a supreme executive council, one legislative house and a board of censors. An insurrection known as the Whiskey Rebellion, suppressed in 1794, grew out of a difficulty with the Scotch-Irish regarding the excise tax. Pennsylvania's part in the Civil War was most exemplary. Under President Lincoln's call for volunteers, April 5, 1861, 25 regiments were formed in less than one month. Her borders were invaded three times, twice at Chambersburg and once by General Lee's army when the decisive battle of the war was fought at Gettysburg. In 1877 great railroad riots occurred. In 1895 a law making education compulsory was approved. In 1901 a department of forestry was established, in 1903 a department of state highways. In 1902 a strike kept 147,000 miners of anthracite out for five months.

Education. In all departments of education Pennsylvania has been most progressive. The thought of her earliest settlers seems to have been to give careful heed to the educational welfare of her children. Penn's constitution provided that the governor and provincial council should “erect and order all public schools,” and the laws agreed upon in England provided that “all children within this province of the age of 12 years shall be taught some useful trade or skill.” The first English school was opened in Philadelphia by Enoch Flower in 1683. The first school established by Penn was the Friends' public school, opened in 1689 and chartered in 1697. This school has been continuously in operation, and is now known as William Penn Charter School. In 1743 Benjamin Franklin drew a plan for the Academy and Charitable School of the Province of Pennsylvania. This was renewed in 1749, and subsequently developed into the University of Pennsylvania (q. v.) which to-day is one of the leading institutions in the United States. To-day the state's constitution requires that efficient public schools be maintained for the education of all children above the age of six years. The free-school act dates only from 1834, yet to-day the total annual appropriation to the public schools fund is $15,000,000. The public school system is organized under a state superintendent of public instruction, assisted by directors elected by the people, and for each county a superintendent of public schools elected for three years by these directors. In 1910 there were about 1,800,000 children between five and 18 in the state, and about 1,282,965 were enrolled in the public schools. In 1910 there were approximately 900 high schools and 55 private secondary schools. Pennsylvania is divided into 13 state normal school districts, each having its own school for the training of teachers. The state agricultural college is at State College. It provides free tuition in agriculture and the mechanic arts to residents of Pennsylvania. Pennsylvania, besides state schools, has about 40 schools classed as colleges and universities. At Carlisle, Pa., is the largest and best equipped school in America for the education of the Indian. This school was founded by Gen. R. H. Pratt, and under his supervision was in all respects the most efficient institution for the education of the Indian.

Agriculture. In some parts of Pennsylvania are to be found some of the most fertile valleys in the United States. About 65 per cent, of all the state's area is included in farms, and of this about 68 per cent, is improved. There are approximately 220,000 farms, fully 75 per cent. of which are operated by the owners. In the production of corn Pennsylvania yields more than twice as much as New York and of wheat four times as much. Her wheat-crop for 1907 exceeded 30,000,000 bushels. In the production of oats and rye the state is one of the heaviest producers. Potatoes are one of the chief money crops, New York alone of all the eastern states exceeding Pennsylvania in acreage and production. In 1910 only New York and Iowa exceeded Pennsylvania in the acreage and production of hay. Tobacco is also a profitable crop. In 1910 there were raised 49,500,000 pounds, valued at $4,603,500. All the farms, including their improvements and buildings, have an approximate value of $1,041,068,755. If we add the value of the implements, machinery and live stock, we have a grand total of $1,253,274,862. In fruit and stock raising Pennsylvania has, in recent years, come strongly to the front. In orchard-products she ranks third, and in live-stock stands fifth. Pennsylvania's farmers are coming to realize that one of the most profitable sources of money is found in the raising of poultry. The state stands sixth in the value of poultry and third in egg production.

Transportation. Most of the canals have long been out of use. In railroading little was done prior to 1848, and yet Pennsylvania had 1,000 miles of railroads. In 1906 it had 11,290 miles, exclusive of 4,343 more in street or elevated electric track.

Pennsylvania, University of, originated in Benjamin Franklin's proposals relating to the education of the young and in an academy that began to teach in 1751. In 1753 it obtained a charter which described it as a college. In 1791 it became the University of Pennsylvania. In 1872 it moved to West Philadelphia and entered on its modern era. Its medical school, founded in 1765, is the oldest in the United States. Lectures on law were given in 1790, but the present organization of the law-school dates only from 1850. In 1852 it was decided to establish a department of arts, manufactures and mining; professorships in civil engineering, geology, mineralogy and mining; and two regular courses in science. In 1874 this department was named Towne Scientific School. Other departments consist of the college; the department of philosophy or graduate school; University Hospital; Wistar Institute (for anatomy and biology); the laboratory of hygiene; the departments of dentistry; veterinary medicine; archaeology; and physical education; the veterinary hospital; the library; and Flower Observatory. The university's college itself includes the School of Arts, Towne Scientific School and Wharton School of Finance and Commerce. The university in 1905 had 33 buildings, and these and the grounds were worth about $5,700,000. In 1910 the faculty numbered 500, the students 5,389 and the library 272,000 volumes. The productive funds amounted to $4,632,874, but in 1904 the total assets were $11,647,085 and the total income was $687,443.

Pen'ny, an English coin, one twelfth of a shilling in value, first mentioned in the laws of Ina, king of the West Saxons, about the close of the 7th century. It at that time was a silver coin, and weighed 22J grains, being about 1-240 of the Saxon pound weight. Halfpence and farthings were not coined in England till the time of Edward I, but the penny was indented with a cross-mark, so that it could easily be broken either into two or four parts. The penny steadily declined in weight until the reign of Elizabeth, when it was fixed at 7 23-31 grains or 1-62 of an ounce of silver, a value to which the copper pennies, first introduced in 1797, closely approximated. The present penny is made of bronze, and is of only half the value of the copper penny, for which it has been substituted. The American cent is often called a penny.

Penob'scot, the largest river in Maine. The west branch rises near the Canada line, and flows east and southeast to Medway, where it meets the east branch or Seboois River. Afterward its course is southwest to Penobscot Bay, an inlet of the Atlantic Ocean on the southern coast of the state. The Penobscot is navigable for large vessels to Bangor, 60 miles from its mouth. Its upper waters are used for floating logs from the forests of northern Maine to Bangor and other points, where they are sawed into lumber. The length of the Penobscot is 300 miles, and it is the most important navigable stream in the New England states.

Pensacola, Fla. (pen* sd-kof la), a city and port of entry, capital of Escambia

County, 250 miles from New Orleans, on the west shore of a deep bay opening into the Gulf of Mexico. Near by is the Pensacola navy-yard, with a marine hospital and barracks. The city has a large domestic trade in lumber, fish, naval stores, cotton, phosphate and coal. It has n public-school

GULF

buildings, an opera-house, court-house and a state armory. Pensacola was settled by the Spaniards before 1700, occupied by the British from 1763 to 1781, and afterward, during the wars with Napoleon, taken from them by Andrew Jackson in 1814. In 1819, with the remainder of Florida, it became a part of the United States. Population 22,982.

Pen'sions, the regular allowances of money paid to individuals by a government in return for services, civil or military. Most European governments have both a civil and a military list; but in the United States military service alone constitutes a claim for pension* In general, pensions are granted only for active service in time of war and for injuries received during such service. Service-pensions were granted to all survivors of the Revolutionary War by act of 1818, to all survivors of the War of 1812 by act of 1871, to the survivors of the Mexican War by act of 1887 and to Civil War veterans in 1904. But the bulk of United States pensions are invalid-pensions for wounds or disability incurred in service. These extend to the widows and children under 16 years of those who died from such wounds or disease; or, in the event of there being no such surviving widow or children, then to dependent fathers, mothers or minor brothers and sisters of men so dying. The pensions, which range from $24 to $2,000 a year, are graded according to the rank of the pensioner and the degree of his disability. Thus, where the regular aid or attendance of others is required, from $50 to $72 a month is allowed; where the pensioner is incapacitated for manual labor, $30 a month; for the loss of a hand or foot or total deafness, $30 a month; for the loss of both feet or hands or both eyes, $72 a month; and for amputation at the shoulder or hip joint, $45 a month. In addition to these provisions for injuries incurred in the service, by the law of June 27, 1890, all persons who served 90 days or more in the army or navy of the United States during the Civil War and were honorably discharged and are now suffering from any permanent disease or disability, not the result of vicious habits, which unfits them from earning their support by manual labor, are allowed a pension of from $6 to $12 a month according to the degree of disability. By the same law the widow of any such soldier, without other means of support than her daily labor, shall receive $8 a month during her widowhood, provided she married such soldier prior to June 27, 1890.

An independent bureau for the transaction of the pension business of the government was established in 1833, and in 1849 it was made a bureau of the Department of the Interior. The commissioner of pensions is appointed by the president, and under him about 2,000 persons are employed in the examination and settlement of pension claims; and there is an equal number of surgeons throughout the country whose duty it is to examine all applicants ordered to appear before them.

The growth of the pension system of the United States and its liberality toward its soldiers and sailors may be seen from the following figures: In 1862 the amount of money paid out for pensions was less than $1,000,000; in 1872, 10 years later, it exceeded $30,000,000; in 1880 it was $57,240,540; for the year ending June 30, 1890, it was $106,493,890; for the year ending June 30, 1900, it was $139,381,522; for the year ending June 30, 1911, it was $157,325,160. The total number of pensioners on the roll at the latter date was 892,098.

Pen′tateuch (tūk) (from the Greek words pente, five, and teuchos, book), the name given by the Christian fathers to the first five books of the Bible: Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers and Deuteronomy. The Jewish name given to these books was Torah, meaning The Law. In connection with Joshua these five books are sometimes considered to form one continuous work, by many modern scholars called the Hexateuch.

Pe′onage, a system of servitude common in Mexico and some Spanish-American states. By the Spanish colonial system the peon in debt to his employer was bound to labor for him until the debt was paid. It is claimed that under this system employers often contrived to keep their laborers in continual servitude by advancing them money for needless expenditures or selling them goods on credit and at high prices. Peonage in the territory of New Mexico was abolished by act of Congress in 1867. It has also been abolished in the Argentine Republic and some other South American countries.

Pe′ony, a shrub, native of southern Europe, northern Africa and Asia. It is a genus (Pæonia) of the order of Ranunculaceæ. It derives its name from Paion, the physician of the gods, because of its supposed medicinal properties. There are many species, some extensively cultivated in America as ornamental plants and for their flowers, which usually are red or crimson but vary to white. Many varieties and hybrids have been originated. Chinese peonies, which form a large group including many hardy and double-flowered and fragrant varieties, are hybrids obtained by intercrossing various species. There also is a tree-peony, a native of California and Japan. It produces a very large and handsome flower representing a large range of shades and colors. The seeds and roots of certain species of peony are used for food by the wild tribes of Asia.

Peo′ria, Ill., a large and enterprising city on Illinois River, 62 miles north of Springfield and 160 southwest of Chicago. It is an important railway center, the union depot being used by ten of the railway lines that meet at this point, and is connected by steamboat navigation with the Mississippi. It contains among other prominent buildings, a courthouse, postoffice, public library, Roman Catholic cathedral and a Congregational church. Its charitable institutions include three homes for the aged, three hospitals and other institutions. Besides an unexcelled system of public schools, it has several parochial schools, a German school under the patronage of the German Turners, Spalding Institute (R. C.) for boys, founded by Bishop J. L. Spalding, Sacred Heart Academy (R. C.) for girls and Bradley Polytechnic Institute, founded by Mrs. Lydia Bradley in 1897, endowed with $2,000,000 by her and affiliated with Chicago University. Peoria manufactures whiskey, agricultural implements, automobiles, wire fences and other products. It has several meatpacking houses, and takes first rank in its distillery products. Its distilleries number ten and consume 60,000 bushels of corn daily. Peoria is per capita the richest city in the United States. Population 66,950.

Pep′in le Bref (“the short”), son of Charles Martel and father of Charlemagne, was born in 714. Charles Martel, before he died, divided his kingdom between his two sons, Carloman and Pepin, the former taking the German part, the latter Neustria and other portions of northern France; still they were only rulers in the name of the Merovingian king. St. Boniface in 751 crowned Pepin king of the Franks, Childeric, the last king of the Merovingians, having been deposed; and, when Pope Stephen III was hard pressed by the Lombards under Aistulf in 754, he came to France to solicit help from Pepin. The latter led his army into Italy, compelled Aistulf to become his vassal, and gave the pope the title of exarch of Ravenna, thus first establishing the temporal sovereignty of the Holy See. He died in 768, and his two sons, Carloman and Charlemagne, divided his territories between them.

Pep'per, William, an American physician, educator, author and benefactor, was born at Philadelphia, Aug. 21, 1843, and educated at the University of Pennsylvania (q. v.), from which he took both his classical and his medical diploma. He was elected provost of the university in 1881; and during his incumbency of 13 years it became a new institution, one of the foremost in the Union. So great was his devotion to the university, that he not only gave his services free but contributed many thousands of dollars out of his own private fortune toward its various endowments. He died on July 28, 1898.

Pep'sin, a substance contained in the gastric juice and the mucous membrane of the stomach, to which the gastric juice largely owes its power of dissolving the contents of the stomach and converting them into chyme. Various plans have been devised for extracting pepsin from the stomachs of calves, pigs and other animals; but it has never yet been obtained in its purity, and its chemical constitution is unknown. Pepsin has been used to a considerable extent in medical practice in cases of weak or disordered digestion; and it is an ingredient in most of the digestive preparations now in the market.

Pepys (pěp′ǐs, pēps or pǐps), Samuel, a notable English diarist, born in 1683, died in 1703. His famous Diary deals with the era of the Restoration, and is replete with minute and curious facts concerning the times in which its author lived. The Diary was written in cipher, and was not discovered and published until 1825.

Pequots (pe'kwots^ or Pe'quods, a tribe of North American Indians, a branch of the Mohicans, who inhabited the country around Thames River when Connecticut was first settled by the English. It is supposed they branched off from the Hudson River Mohicans at the beginning of the 17th century. They soon conquered most of the tribes in Connecticut, and made treaties with the Dutch and English. But afterwards becoming hostile, an expedition was sent against them fror~ Hartford in 1637. A Pequot fort near the. present town of Groton was attacked and fired, and hundreds perished. The war continued until the tribe was nearly annihilated at Fair-field Swamp. The remnant was either sold as slaves or scattered among the neighboring tribes, but a small number were afterward gathered into bands in Ledyard and North Stonington. Even now a few descendants of the Pequods live at Green Bay, Wis.

Perch, a fresh-water fish generally distributed in Europe, the eastern United States and northern Asia There are about one hundred species. The common yellow

perch is the type of those of moderate size. The American form is dark olive-green above, with golden-yellow sides crossed by six or eight dark bars; the lower fins are orange and the upper ones dark green. A few larger fishes, called pike-perches, also be PERCH

long to the family. The wall-eyed pike is a perch, not a pike. It is one of the most, important food-fishes of the lake's region, and is abundant in Saginaw Bay. It attains a length of three feet and a weight of ten to 30 pounds. In contrast with these large perch the family includes a number of darters too small to be of use as food.

Percy, a distinguished English family, descended from William de Percy, who accompanied William the Conqueror to England, in 1066 and received large grants of* land. See Shakspere's Henry IV and Henry V for Hotspur or Henry Percy. See, also, OTTERBURN, BATTLE OF.

Peren'nial Plants, those which live from year to year, either by the persistence of their stems, as in the case of shrubs and trees, or by the persistence of underground parts. The actual duration of such plants is exceedingly variable, the term simply meaning that they do not disappear entirely within one or two years. They may endure a few years or hundreds of years. See DURATION.

Perfectionists, also called Communists and Free-Lovers, a small American sect founded by John Humphrey Noyes, who was born at Brattleboro, Vt., Sept. 6, 1811. Noyes practiced law a number of years and then became a Congregational preacher. Experiencing a second conversion, he claimed that the prevailing theology is all wrong and separated himself from the Congregational church. He held that the gospel, if accepted, secured entire freedom from sin; that God has a dual being (mafe and female); that the author of evil is uncreated but is not God; and that communion with Christ saves, not from sinning only, but from disease and death. He and his converts formed a Perfectionist church or community at Putney, Vt., afterward moving to Oneida, N. Y. Men and women put their property into a common stock; they gave up formal prayer, religious service and observance of the Sabbath; those who were married renounced their marriage ties,

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and a "complex marriage" was established between all the males and all the females of the "family." In 1880 the pressure of outside influence caused the communitiy to change their mode of life in many respects. Marriage and the ordinary family relationship were introduced; communism of property gave place to a joint-stock company organization; and various co-operative institutions were established. Noyes, who assisted in making these changes, died on April 13, 1886.

Perfum'ery or Per'fumes, the delicate smells arising from certain odoriferous bodies. Perfumes are of two distinct classes: those derived from plants and those of animal origin. Of vegetable perfumes the most ancient are those gum-resins which exude naturally from trees and plants or from wounds inflicted to increase the yield. Among the most important gum-resins are myrrh, benzoin and camphor. Gum-resins form the chief ingredients in incense and pastilles.

A second group of vegetable perfumes are those procured by distillation. These were formerly termed quintessences, but are now called ottos (from Turkish attar), the attar or otto of the rose. The process of distillation is a simple one. The fragrant part of the plant is put into the still and covered with water. When the water boils, the ottos arise with the steam, from which they are separated by decanting. One hundred pounds of orange or lemon peel will yield about ten ounces of the fragrant oil; 100 of nutmeg 60 to 70 ounces of oil of nutmeg; other substances in various proportions.

But, as many flowers do not yield their essential oil by distillation, two other processes have been devised for obtaining it: enfleurage and maceration. In the former process square boxes with glass bottoms are piovided, upon which is spread a mixture of lard and suet, melted and clarified. Fresh flowers are spread every morning upon this grease, the box being kept closed until the grease absorbs their odor. When the grease has been enflowered, that is, saturated with scent, the process generally lasting three weeks or more, it is again melted and strained into canisters, and then is ready for use. Perfumes are also obtained from flowers by maceration, that is, by placing them in oil or melted fat for several hours and continuing the process with new flowers until the oil or fat becomes fragrant with their odor. The best-perfumed grease is obtained from some flowers by enfleurage and from others by maceration, while others will produce the most satisfactory results by both processes — enfleurage followed by maceration.

Some extent of the industry may be obtained from the average weight of certain flowers grown in the south of France:

Orange blossoms, 5,500,000 pounds; roses, 4,400,000 pounds: violets, 330,000 pounds; jasmine, 440,000 pounds; and an equal quantity of cassia and tuberoses.. Europe and British Jk>di alone consume about 150,000 gallons of handkerchief perfumes yearly. The English revenue from French eau de cologne is $40,000 a year and from other imported perfumes $200,000.

The principal perfumes of animal origin are musk, civet, ambergris and castor, of which musk is most highly prized. The aroma of musk imparts odor to every body or thing with which it comes in contact. Its power to impart odor is so great, that polished steel will become fragrant with it, if they are both placed in a closed box for a sufficient length of time. In the manufacture of perfumery, tincture of musk is mixed with other odorous bodies to render the scent more permanent. See Rose Industry of Bulgaria, Piesse's Art of Perfumery and Atkinson's Perfumes and their Preparation.

Peri (pe'rt), according to the mystical lore of the east the child of fallen spirits, which spends its life in all imaginable delights but is forever excluded from the joys of paradise. It occupies an intermediate place between angels and demons, and is either male or female. Like the fairies in our own popular mythology the female peris possess surpassing grace and beauty. The houri is a nymph of the Muslim paradise.

Per'ianth, the general name of the floral leaves of a flower, including, both calyx and corolla. It is more especially used in case the calyx and corolla are similar in appearance, as in the lily.

Per'iblem (in plants ). At the apex of the stem or root of the higher plants the great regions are first organized in an embryonic form. The embryonic region which organizes the cortex (which see) is the periblem. and it lies just within the dermatogen (q.v.), which is the embryonic epidermis.

Per'icarp (in plants), a name chiefly used in connection with the fruit of seed-plants (Spermatophytes) and applied to the transformed ovary, which invests the seeds as a variously modified outer wall. A pea-pod, exclusive of the peas, is the pericarp. In apples it is the parchment-like investment of the core; while in the peach the pericarp includes both the flesh and the stone, the kernel being the inclosed seed.

Pericles (per't-klez), the greatest statesman of Greece, was born in the closing years of the 5th century B. C. He received a thorough and extensive education, but of all his teachers the one whom he always held in the highest regard was Anaxagoras, the humane philosopher. Pericles was noted throughout his public career for quiet dignity of manner, grandeur of eloquence, sagacity, honesty and profound patriotism. When

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he entered public life, although his family did not rank among the highest in wealth or influence, so great was his ability, so noble his character, that he soon rose to the highest power as leader of the popular party. Pericles seems to have clearly grasped and firmly held the modern idea that, as the state is supported by the great body of citizens, its laws should be so framed and administered as to secure the greatest good to the greatest number, rather than to promote the interests of any special class or classes. About 463 B. C. Pericles struck a great blow at the Athenian oligarchy by the introduction of a system whereby the poorer classes could serve on juries and take a more active part in public life. Shortly after this, Cimon, the leader of the oligarchy, was banished. By sheer force of talents and character Pericles became ruler. In 457 B. C. he magnanimously proposed the recall of Cimon, with the agreement between them, it is said, that Cimon should command the army on its expedition abroad and not oppose Pericles in administration at home.

Pericles earnestly sought to unite the Hellenic states in a grand federation, to end their domestic difficulties and make Greece a powerful nation, able to defend itself against all the powers by which it was surrounded. Had the idea of Pericles been carried out, Athens in later years might have proved herself more than a match for Philip and Alexander of Macedon, and possibly might even have resisted Rome. But there already was that smothered hostility between Athens and Sparta that rendered the Peloponnesian War inevitable. Pericles warded off this conflict by diplomacy and bribery; but it came at last in 431 B. C. The plague ravaged Athens next year, and in 429 B. C. Pericles died after a lingering fever. It is well-nigh impossible to relate all that Pericles did to make Athens the most glorious city in the ancient world. Under his patronage Greek architecture and sculpture reached their highest development. To him Athens owed the Parthenon, the Odeum and the Propylaeum, that most stupendous of all architectural constructions of Greece. He also encouraged music and the drama; and during his rule industry and commerce were in so flourishing a condition that there was universal prosperity in Attica. Although he had many enemies who denounced him for the expenditure of so much public money upon buildings and amusements, the truthful pen of Thucydides records that he did not act unworthily of his high position, that he never oppressed or persecuted his adversaries and that, although he had unlimited command of the public purse, he personally was above corruption. Plutarch records that, when Pericles lay dying and the friends around his bed were reviewing the grand achievements of his life, he quietly interrupted them by saying: "What you praise in my life belongs partly to good fortune, and at best is common to me with many others; but the thing of which I am proudest is that no Athenian has ever put on mourning on account of me."

Perigynous (pe-rij'i-nus) Flowers, those in which the sepals, petals and stamens are borne on the rim of a cup-like body which rises around the pistil or pistils, as in certain members of the rose family. The noun form is perigyny, and the contrasting terms are hypogyny, in which the other floral parts arise from beneath the ovary, and epigyny, in which they seem to arise from the summit of the ovary.

Perip'atus, an interesting animal connecting worms and insects. About 20 species are known, inhabiting South Africa, Australia, New Zealand, South America and the West Indies. They have a long body like a worm or caterpillar, but the segments or joints do not show on the outside. Internally, however, they are well-marked. There is no division into thorax and abdomen. The head bears antennae and jaws. The body is provided with short, jointed feet (14 to 42 pairs), like a thousand-legged worm. Like the myriapods, they are found under stones and in rotting wood, and feed on insects and the like. Their internal structure is noteworthy. They possess a pair of looped tubes in each segment of the body, like those of worms, and, in addition, have breathing tubes like those of insects and myriapods. Structural peculiarities of two different subkingdoms of animals unite in peripatus. It is a sort of generalized form bridging the gap between worms and myriapods, and the myriapods connect with the lowest insects. Peripatus is of much interest to zoologists as a survivor of a very ancient family of animals and as a link between the worms and arthropods.

Per'isperm, the nutritive tissue which occurs in seeds outside of the embryo-sac. Within the embryo-sac the nutritive tissue is called endosperm. Perisperm is derived from the nucellus of the ovule, while endosperm is a part of the female gametophyte. In most seeds perisperm does not exist, all the nutritive tissue being endosperm.

Per'istome (in plants), the set of tooth-like processes found at the open mouth of the capsules of mosses. They arise from the rim and extend radially toward the

PERKIN

PERSEPOLIS

center, and are of various and often beautiful patterns. See MOSSES and Musci. Per'kin, Sir Wm. Henry, LL. D., Ph. D.,

F. R. S., eminent English chemist, the discoverer of the first aniline color and founder of the coal-tar color industry, the jubilee of which was celebrated in 1906, when distinguished scientists from all over the world came to England to do Sir William honor. Born in London in 1838, he was educated at the City of London School and for a time studied chemistry under Dr. A. W. Hofmann at the Royal College of Chemistry. In 1856, while pursuing his own researches, he 'was led to discover aniline purple or mauve, a discovery which founded the industry of the coal-tar colors. His name is also connected with other important discoveries, for which he has been made the recipient of many honors. Among the medals he held was one awarded by the American Chemical Society, on the occasion of his visit to the United States in 1906. The influence of the great chemist's discovery on the coal-tar industry has been great, for to-day no less than 700 coloring matters are derived from coal-tar products. He died on July 14, 1907.

Per'nambu'co, a state of northeastern Brazil, has an area of nearly 50,000 square miles, and is fertile and thickly populated on the coast, though somewhat barren and mountainous inland. Pernambuco produces great quantities of sugar and a good deal of coffee, cotton, tobacco and maize. Cattle and horses are raised on the plateaus of the interior. The capital' is Pernambuco or Recife, a town of nearly 200,000 people. This is a great trading-port, owing to its nearness to Europe, and that in spite of the fact that the harbor is not navigable by the largest vessels. Pernambuco ranks third among the cities of Brazil (q. v.).

Perpetual Motion, stated in modern terms, is a name given to the problem of creating energy. Lavoisier proved the impossibility of creating or annihilating even the most minute portion of matter. In like manner all modern physical investigations have shown the impossibility of creating or annihilating energy. Since no mechanism is known which does not absorb some energy in friction, it is evident that if we are to keep any mechanism in motion we must constantly supply it with energy. This great generalization may be said to date from 1847, when Helmholtz published his great memoir on the Conservation of Energy. But long before that time it was well-known to clear thinkers that the law of the conservation of energy applies to all purely mechanical operations. Accordingly in 1775 the French Academy declared that it would not thereafter receive any communications upon the subject of perpetual motion. This latter date may, therefore, be considered as marking the complete overthrow of the idea

that motion can be secured in any actual mechanical device without a constant supply of energy; and 1847 may be considered as marking the overthrow of the idea that perpetual motion can be secured by any means whatever, mechanical, electrical, thermal or other. See DYNAMICS and ENERGY. Per'rault (pd'ro'}, Charles, a French author, was born at Paris, Jan, 12, 1628, the youngest of an advocate's four sons. He was sent at nine years of age to the College of Beauvois, but quarreled with his teachers, and the rest of his education was left to himself. He studied law and was admitted to practice, but, soon tiring of the routine of the legal profession, he procured an easy post under his brother, the receiver-general of Paris. Perrault's name has been made immortal by eighteen fairy-tales, published in 1697. The titles include The Sleeping Beauty, Little Red Riding-Hood, Bluebeard, Puss in Boots, The Fairy, Cinderella, Hop o' My Thumb and others dear to childhood. Pe'rrault died at Paris, May 16, 1703. Per'ry, Oliver Hazard, an American naval officer, was born at South Kingston, R. I., Aug. 23, 1785. He entered the United States navy in 1809, and at the beginning of the War of 1812 was transferred at his own request from the command of a division of gunboats on the Atlantic coast to serve under Commodore Chauncey on Lakes Erie and Ontario. He participated in the attack upon Fort George at the head of a body of seamen, but his fame rests upon the victory he won over the British squadron on Lake Erie, near Put-in-Bay, O., Sept. 10, 1813. In this action, known as Perry's Victory, the Americans were completely victorious, the result being fitly told in Perry's dispatch to the government: " We have met the enemy, and they are ours." He was rewarded with the rank of captain and a vote of thanks by Congress. He continued in the naval service throughout this war and for several years thereafter until his death, which took place at Port Spain, on the island of Trinidad, Aug. 23, 1919.

Persepolis (per-sep1'o-tts) (Persia City), the Greek name for the capital of ancient Persia, the Persian name having been lost. This city was situated in a beautiful plain near the junction of the Araxes (Bondomir) and the Medus (Polwar) River. Nothing remains of the city at the present day

COMMODORE O. H. PERRY

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except its magnificent ruins. It was generally designated The Glory of the East, and, according to ancient writers, "no other city could be compared with it either in beauty or in wealth." It was nearly or wholly destroyed by Alexander the Great in his conquest of Persia, and is scarcely mentioned in history afterward.

Perseus (perfse-us), in Greek mythology the son of Zeus and Danae. He was brought up on one of the Cyclades, where Polydectes reigned, who, wishing to get rid of him, sent him when yet a youth *o bnng the head of Medusa the Gorgon. Perseus set forth under the protection of Athene* and Hermes, the former of whom gave him a mirror by which he could see the monster without looking at her (for that would have changed him into stone), and the latter a sickle, while the nymphs provided him with winged sandals and a helmet of Hades or invisible cap. After numerous wonderful adventures he reached the abode of Medusa, who dwelt near Tartessus on the coast of the ocean, and succeeded in cutting off her head, which he put into a bag a^d carried off. On his return he visited Eth'opia, where he liberated and married the beautiful Andromeda, who had been fastened to a rock and left as a prey to a terrible sea-monster. He then rescued his mother from Polydectes, whom he turned into stone, Perseus was worshipped as a hero in various parts of Greece and, according to Herodotus, in Egypt too. In ancient works of art the figure of Perseus much resembles that of Hermes.

Persia (per'ska}, called by the natives Irdn, the most extensive and powerful native kingdom of western Asia, is bounded on the north by the Caspian Sea and the Asiatic provinces of Russia; on the east by Afghanistan and Baluchistan; on the south by the Indian Ocean, the Strait of Ormuz and the Persian Gulf; and on the west by Asiatic Turkey. It extends about 900 miles from east to west and 700 from north to south, and has an area of 628,000 square miles. It consists for the most part of an elevated plateau, which in the center and on the east is almost a dead level, but on the northwest and south is covered with mountain chains.

Climate. The climate is exceedingly varied. The younger Cyrus is reported to have said to Xenophon that "people perish with cold at one extremity of the country, while they are suffocated with heat at the other." Persia, in fact, may be said to possess three climates: that of the gulf-coast, that of the elevated plateau and that of the Caspian provinces. Along the southern coast the heat of summer and autumn is severe, while in winter and spring the climate is delight* ful. On the plateau there are considerable differences of climate and considerable variation from heat to cold. About Ispahan the

winters and summers are equally mild; but to the north and northwest of this the winters are severe; and the desert region of the center and east and the country on its border endure oppressive heat in summer and piercing cold in winter. The Caspian provinces in the north, on account of their general depression below the sea, are exposed to a degree of heat in summer almost equal to that of the West Indies, and their winters are mild. Rains, however, are frequent, and many tracts of low country are unhealthy. Except in the Caspian provinces the atmosphere is remarkable for dryness and purity.

Products. The cultivated portions, when supplied with moisture, either by rainfall or irrigation, are very fertile. In some places two crops can be raised in the year. The principal products are wheat (the best in the world), barley, corn, sugar and rice. The vine flourishes in several provinces, and the wines of Shiraz are celebrated in eastern poetry. Opium and tobacco are among the considerable exports, together with wool, cotton and the fine, Persian, hand-made carpets. Pearl-fishing also is a growing industry, together with the mining of turquoises and precious stones. Mulberries are largely cultivated, and silk is one of the most important productions of the country. The cultivation of silk has greatly diminished of late years, however, on account of the silk-worm disease. Among the domestic animals the horse, ass and camel hold first place. The horses are larger and handsomer than those of Arabia, but less fleet. Salt is the principal mineral product* although copper, lead, antimony and some other minerals abound in certain localities. Considerable coal has been mined in the mountains near Teheran.

Transportation. The chief ports are on the Caspian Sea and the Persian Gulf, and the centers of commerce are Tabriz, Teheran and Ispahan. Persia has a system of telegraphs and the beginning of a railway system.,

People. The settled portion of the population are chiefly descendants of the ancient Persian race with an intermixture of foreign blood. They are Mohammedans of the Shia'h sect, except the Sunnis and the 9,000 Parsis (q.v.)9 who retain the ancient faith of Zoroaster. The nomads or pastoral tribes are of four distinct races: Turks, Kurds, Lurs and Arabs. Of these nomad races the Turkish is the most numerous, the present Kajar dynasty belonging to it. The nomad races are distinguished for courage, manliness and independence of character; but they are inveterate robbers, and have been the cause of many revolutions and civil wars. There is a population of 70,000 native Christians: the Nestorians of Urumiah and Telmais and the Armenians whose principal settlement is at Ispahan. Including those

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who have joined the Roman Catholic and Protestant churches, the whole number of Christians can hardly exceed 75,000. Christian misions how ver, are making steady progress. The population ic estimated at 9,500,000. The chief cities are Teheran, the capital (280,000), Tabriz (200,000) and Ispahan (70,000).

Government. The government i^ a pure despotism, the shah or padishah possessing absolute authority over life and property. His deputies, the governors of provinces and districts, possess a like authority over those under them, although they are accountable to the shah and may be punished by him for any acts that he does not approve. The revenue is derived almost exclusively from a tax on the land and its products, and as a natural result the peasantry are seriously oppressed by the provincial governors. It is believed that, great as are the legal taxes, the illegal exactions amount to nearly an equal sum. The present shah succeeded on Jan. 8, 1907, In 1905 the people demanded representative institutions. In January of 1906 the shah consented to the establishment of a national council. Constitutional government began in October, but the parliament was dissolved in 1908 and the country is in political turmoil. For the history of ancient Persia see CYRUS THE GREAT, DARIUS and XERXES. Consult Rawlinson's The Five Great Monarchies.

Per'sian Gulf, an arm of the Indian Ocean, lying between Arabia and Persia. Its length is 600 miles, its breadth varying from 50 to 250 miles. The total area is about 75,000 square miles. The order of its periodic currents is precisely the reverse of those of the Red Sea, as they ascend from May to October and descend from October to May. The greatest depth does not exceed 50 fathoms. Oriental geographers give this gulf the name of the Green Sea, from the strip of water of a greenish color lying along the Arabian coast.

Persim'moii or Date=Plum, a tree from 30 to 60 feet in height, which yields a fruit about the size of a plum, with six to eight oval seeds. The color of the fruit when ripe is orange-red or reddish-brown. It is very astringent until over-ripe and mellowed by frost, when it has a sweet and agreeable taste. It is a native of the southern portions of North America, where one tree often yields several bushels of fruit. While distinctively a southern tree, it grows as far north as Long Island and as far west as Illinois. In the lower Atlantic and Gulf states the tree is very common, and is there found at its best. Where it has space it is a wide-spreading tree. The leaves are long, thick, smooth and lustrous, dark green above but lighter below. The bark is very dark; the almost black wood is close grained and hard, and is used for Shoelasts and shutters.

Perth Am'boy, N. J., a city and port of entry in Middlesex County, situated at the mouth of Raritan River, where it falls into Raritan Bay, at the foot of Staten Island Sound, 20 miles south of New York City. It is reached from the latter by a number of railroads, chiefly the Central of New Jersey, the Pennsylvania and the Lehigh Valley. Deposits of kaolin and fire-clay are found in the city, and give employment to terra-cotta, drain-tile and fire and glazed-brick works etc. There also are machine-shops; iron foundries; chemical, emery and cork works; oil-refineries, lead and cement works, ship-yards and two silver and copper refineries, one of which ranks as the largest in the world; together with the large coal and freight wharves of Lehigh Valley Railroad, abutting on the fine harbor. There are good schools, churches, banks and other civic equipments. Population 32,121.

Perth, a city of Scotland, on the right bank of the Tay, 43 miles from Edinburgh and 62 from Glasgow. The great beauty of its surroundings — the noble river, the two wooded heights, Moncrieff and Kinnoul Hills, each 700 feet high, and away to the north the Grampians — makes The Pair City well-worthy the name. A handsome bridge of nine arches connects the city with the suburb of Bridgend, where Ruskin spent a portion of his childhood. Along the Tay extend two beautiful public parks, each containing nearly 100 acres. Population 35,851.

Peru', a republic of South America, is bounded on the north by Ecuador, on the east by Brazil and Bolivia, on the south by Chile and the Pacific Ocean and on the west by the Pacific. Its area is not definitely known, but is estimated at about 695,733 square miles. The population, not including wild Indians, according to the latest census was 4,609,999 the aboriginal Inca Indians constituting more than half of this number. The Peruvian government considers the total population as under 3,000,000.

Surface. The length of Peru along the Pacific is nearly 1,500 miles or, measured on the coast of the United States, as far as from Massachusetts to the southern point of Florida; its breadth at its northern boundary is between 700 and 800 miles, but at the southern one is less than 100 miles. The surface is divided into three distinct tracts, the climate of which varies from torrid heat to arctic cold, while their products range from the stunted herbage of the mountain slopes to the rich fruits of the tropical valleys. These three separate regions are the Coast, the Sierra and the Montana. The coast is a strip 30 to 60 miles in width, extending from the Pacific to the western Cordillera. For the most part it is a sandy desert; but it contains

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many fertile valleys watered by streams which have their sources on the mountain slopes. Between these valleys are trackless deserts, covered with a shifting, yellow sand, which is often carried about by the wind in pillars 100 feet high. In this coastal region rain is unknown. This is due to the fact that the southeast trade-winds of the Atlantic, cooled by the eastern slopes of the Andes, lose much of their moisture in the excessive rainfalls of that region and the further fact that the remainder is exhausted in covering the Cordilleras with snow, after which the winds fall cool and dry upon the western coast. The sierra embraces all the region between the eastern and western Cordilleras and the two ranges of the Andes. This region averages 100 miles in width and is estimated to contain an area of 150,000 to 200,000 square miles. After the table lands of Tibet those of Peru and Bolivia are the highest in the world. Unlike those of Tibet, which are mere grassy uplands, they are studded with towns and villages; and even at this elevation the climate is pleasant and wheat, corn, barley, rye and potatoes are produced. The montana region extends eastward from the Andes to Brazil and Bolivia. It embraces more than half the area of Peru, and consists of vast forests and alluvial plains, is rich in all the productions of tropical latitudes, and teems with vegetable and animal life. The mountain system is divided into three ranges: the western Cordilleras, the central Cordilleras and the Andes. In the western Cordilleras are found the peaks of Huascar 22,000 feet; Huandoy 21,088 feet; Hualcan 19,945 feet; Sara-Sara 20,000 feet; Chachain 19,820 feet; and Misti 20,260 feet. The central Cordilleras form the divide between the waters which flow to the Pacific and those which flow to the Atlantic Ocean. Between this range and the Andes on the east lies the great Peruvian plateau.

Rivers and Railways. The three great rivers of Peru are the Marafion, Huallaga and Ucayala. The Marafion has its source in Lake Laurichoca on the eastern slope of the central Cordillera at an altitude of 14,270 feet. It flows toward the northwest until near the boundary of Peru and Ecuador, where it turns eastward. The Htiallaga has a parallel course on the western side of the Andes until it breaks through that range and joins the Maran<5n. The Ucayali is on the eastern side of the Andes, flowing north parallel with that range for 1.200 miles, when it unites with the Marafion to form the Amazon. The Amazon flows 270 miles in Peru, before it passes into Brazil. These three rivers have numerous branches, some of them of considerable size. The Ucayali is navigable to Mayso, 3,623 miles from the mouth of the Amazon. Numerous rivers flow into the

Pacific, but none is navigable. Several streams flow into Lake Titicaca. This lake, which extends into Bolivia, is 155 miles long and the largest in South America. Peru has but 1,200 miles of railways. The most important line runs from the port of Callao to Lima, thence across the Rimac Valley and over the mountains to Oroya, crossing through a tunnel 15,665 feet above the sea. Another line extends from Molenda on the coast, 324 miles to Lake Titicaca. The railway from Oroya to Cerro de Pasco is open. That between Guaqui and La Paz has been completed. Roads between Oroya and Huancayo and between Sicuani and Cuzco are building. The railways in operation extend 1,200 miles; the telegraphs 3,740 miles. Other short lines extend from coast towns into the interior. Between Cuzco and Sicuani there is a carriage-road on which steam-traction is used.

Cities. The chief cities are Lima, the capital, nine miles inland from the port of Callao, population 140,884; Callao, the principal port on the Bay of Callao (31,000); Arequipa (35,000); Cuzco (10,000); Aya-cucho (14,346); Chinca Alta (18,000); Piura (15,000); Janca (15,000); Cerro de Pasco (14,000); and Chiclayo (14,000).

Resources. The mountainous regions abound in gold, silver, copper, lead, iron and other minerals, and there are rich placer deposits along certain rivers. The river valleys are very fertile, producing sugar, cotton, coffee and other products. The plateaus afford vast tracts of rich pasturage, while the vast forests in the east are rich in rubber trees and a variety of valuable woods. But the development of the rich resources has been long delayed through lack of transportation facilities. In the eastern or forest section there are navigable rivers; and a few railway lines reach short distances inland from the coast; but the great plateaus, the agriculture lands and the mountainous regions, rich in minerals, have not even wagon-roads but only bridle-paths. It takes one day by rail, nine on mule-back and seven on steamboat, 17 days in all, to go from Lima, the capital, to Iquitos near the head of the Amazon, a distance of 1,224 miles, or less than the distance from New York to Omaha.

Government. Peru is a republic, divided into one constitutional province, two littoral provinces and 18 departments. The president is elected for four years and is not eligible for a second consecutive term. There are two vice-presidents, and a Congress consisting of a senate and a chamber of deputies. The president, vice-president, senators and deputies are elected by direct vote of the electors. There are a supreme court, nine superior courts and inferior courts, called "courts of first instance.

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The manufacturing interests are not large. There are cotton and woolen mills, tobacco and cigar factories, rice and sugar mills and numerous small factories of various kinds.

History. Peru was under the dominion of Spain from its conquest by Pizarro in the 16th century until 1821, when it was proclaimed an independent republic under the protectorate of General San Martin, one of the liberators of Chile. San Martin retired on the arrival of Gen. Simon Bolivar in 1823, and next year occurred the battle of Ayacucho, in which the Spanish viceroy was taken prisoner and Spanish domination finally ended. Bolivar left Peru two years later, but it was not until 1844 that the government was fully settled under the presidency of Ramon Castilla. In 1879 Peru, as the ally of Bolivia, became involved in a war with Chile, the latter state coveting the nitrate deposits in the Peruvian province of Tarapaca. This war was disastrous to Peru both on land and sea, the provinces of Tacna and Tarapaca being wrested from her, and in 1881 the Chilean army entered the capital. Peace was concluded in October, 1883, an(i some months afterward the Chileans evacuated the country. Under the presidency of General Caceres and his successors, Peru has made slow but certain progress in repairing the wastes and losses that she suffered during her conflict with Chile. See BOLIVIA, ECUADOR and CHILE.

Peru, Ind., city, county-seat of Miami County, on Wabash River, 71 miles north of Indianapolis. It is in an agricultural section, and is a trading-point for a large region. The important manufacturing establishments are glass-works, steel-works, confectionery factories, bagging, basket, wagon and carriage factories, woolen mills and railroad-shops. The city owns and controls the waterworks, and has the service of three railroads. Population 10,910.

Perugia (pa-rod1fja), a city of Italy, stands on the right bank <T£ the Tiber, 1,700 feet above the sea, ten miles east of the lake of Perugia and 125 miles by rail from Rome. It is surrounded by walls pierced with numerous gates, of which the Etruscan arch of Augustus is the finest. The university (founded in 1276) has 26 teachers and 326 students, a botanical garden, an observatory, a valuable antiquarian museum and a library of 40,000 volumes. Perugia became a part of the kingdom in 1860, and has a population ofj>5,8i8.

Perugino (pd'roo-je'no), a celebrated Italian painter, whose real name was Pietro Vannucci, was born in Umbria in 1446, but, as he established himself in the neighboring city of Perugia, he has generally been given the name of Perugino. At Rome, to which he went in 1483, Sixtus IV employed him in the Sistine Chapel; his fresco of Christ giving the Keys to Peter is the best of those

still visible — others being destroyed by him to make way for Michael Angelo's Last Judgment. He returned to Perugia in 1512, and painted a number of pictures there. He was painting frescos in a church near Perugia in 1524, when he was seized with the plague and died.

Pessimism (pes'sl-miz'm), is the theory or doctrine that on the whole the world is bad rather than good; or, it might be defined as the negative answer to the question: "Is life worth living?" Pessimism in its hold upon so many minds may be referred to the contemplation of actual pain and unhappi-ness in the world and to the fact that the actual world is so far inferior to the ideals of the soul that we can never be satisfied with things as they are or even with the progress mankind is making toward a higher and better condition. Pessimism as a mood or temper of mind has existed in all ages, but only in recent times has it been elaborated into a complete philosophy or theory in the systems of Schopenhauer and Hartmann, his successor. The full force of pessimism lies in the assertion that all the ends and aims of life are illusory, that life brings only illusions, the chief illusion of all being man's belief that he is born to enjoy life. According to the pessimistic theory nothing of value is ever attained in this world, as its very essence consists in strife and change and in the case of the individual life there is an excess of un-happiness and pain over happiness and pleasure. To the first statement it may be answered that it is not rational to despise the realization of certain ends because there arise other ends to be realized. It is natural and therefore rational for the infant to enjoy its first walk across the floor, even though it has all the lessons of life yet to learn. The assertion that in the individual life there is more pain than pleasure is disproved by our consciousness and our s experience. We desire to live; therefore 1 our lives must be worth living, at least to ourselves. But whatever errors may be found in pessimism, it certainly involves the truths that happiness is not to be obtained by direct seeking and that life can be made valuable only by losing sight of self and directing our thoughts and energies to high and noble purposes outside ourselves; or, to express the same principle in scriptural phrase: He that loseth his life shall find it.

Pestalozzi (pes'td-lotfse), Johann Hein-rich, a Swiss educational reformer and founder of modern pedagogy, was born at Zurich, Jan. 12, 1746. Eager to be an adjuster of social wrongs from his youth, he sought to realize his aims through the education of the young, and to him belongs the high honor of conceiving a method which is the corner-stone of all sound theories of education, especially of primary education. Although he was illiterate, ill-dressed, a poor speaker and a poor manager, and although all his undertakings resulted in practical failure, he aroused the admiration of Europe and called forth a host of disciples, who to the present day have carried out the principles of their master with the greatest enthusiasm. Pestalozzi was totally unable to cope with the world, but he awoke the minds of men to a sense of their responsibility to childhood and ushered in the 19th century as the educational age par excellence. He first sought to carry out his theories by collecting a number of orphans and outcast children upon a farm in Aargau to educate them by blending industrial, mental and moral training; but on account of faulty domestic economy this enterprise failed and was abandoned after a five years’ struggle. Soon after this he published Evening Hours of a Hermit. In this work he developed the following principles as the basis of education: In educating man seek first of all to know him. (2) The method whereby to educate anyone should be founded upon his own nature. (3) In his nature are hidden the forces that will draw out his faculties; therefore exercise them. (4) It is exercise that connects the wants of our nature with the objects that satisfy those wants; everyone’s education should answer to his own needs and the inner call of the soul. In later years Pestalozzi published How Gertrude Educates Her Children, the recognized exposition of Pestalozzian method. It sets forth that the education and development of human nature should be in harmony with natural laws; that in order to teach well we should study the processes of nature in man and its particular processes in individuals; and that observation, a spontaneous perception of things, is the method by which all objects of knowledge are brought home to us. This affirmation contains the essence of the whole theory of institutional education. In 1805 Pestalozzi moved his school from Berthond to Yverdon (Ifferten), which drew upon him the eyes of all Europe; but the same incapacity in practical affairs that had caused the failure of all his other schemes showed itself here, and in 1825 this school was closed, and Pestalozzi withdrew to Brugg, where he lived, an object of mingled pity and respect, until his death on Feb. 17, 1827.

Pesth or, rather, Budapest, is the capital of Hungary and, next to Vienna, the second city in Austria-Hungary. Pesth stands on the left, Buda on the right, bank of the Danube, 170 miles from Vienna, and since 1873 the two have been one municipality. The towns are connected by chain bridges and a railway bridge. Buda is much the older town, Pesth being an essentially, modern place — the growth of the 19th century principally. It has many fine streets and squares, and the buildings are noted for their large size and substantial appearance. Among them may be mentioned the Jewish synagogue, the parish church, the national museum and the parliament house. While Pesth stands on a plain, Buda is built on small, steep hills, and is backed by vine-clad slopes. Population of both towns 880,371. See Budapest.

Pet′als, the individual parts of the corolla or inner set of floral leaves. The petals are usually the showy members of a flower, their size, delicacy of texture and color giving it its character. See Flower.

Petard (pē-tärd′), an instrument for blowing open the gates of a fortress or demolishing palisades. It consisted of an iron or wooden case filled with powder and ball; this was firmly fastened to a plank provided with hooks, by which it was securely attached to a gate. The petard, which was lighted by a slow match, has been superseded by powder-bags.

Pe′ter the Her′mit, the apostle of the first crusade for the recovery of Jerusalem from the Mohammedans,was born at Amiens, France, about 1050. After serving as a soldier he became a monk, and is said to have made a pilgrimage to the Holy Land before 1094, when he began the preaching that started so many thousands on the famous march to Jerusalem. A portion of the first army was led by Peter himself, but at the siege of Antioch he attempted to desert, and, when several miles on his way home, was brought back by the soldiers of Tancred to receive a public reprimand. When Jerusalem was taken by the crusaders in 1099, Peter preached a sermon on the Mount of Olives. At the end of the crusade he returned to Europe and founded a monastery at Huy in Belgium, where he died on July 11, 1115.

Peter the Great (Peter Alexeievitch, emperor of Russia), was born at Moscow, June
PETER THE GREAT 11, 1672. His father died in 1676, leaving the kingdom to his oldest son, Feodor, Peter’s half-brother. Feodor died in 1682, without issue, after naming Peter as his successor to the exclusion of Ivan, his own full brother, who was weak-minded. This however, provoked an insurrection of the strelzi or militia, under the leadership of Ivan’s sister, who thereby succeeded in obtaining the coronation of Ivan and Peter as joint rulers, with herself as regent.

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Individual articles:

PETER, ST.

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culminated in the Russo-Turkish war of 1877-8 and the complete establishment of Servian independence. After a period of roving he went to Montenegro and in 1883 married the Princess Zarka, the oldest daughter of Prince Nicholas. This marriage eventually served to connect him both with the Russian and the Italian court. Princess Zarka died in 1890, and Peter went to Geneva, Switzerland, to put his children in school, where he lived quietly until 1903. On June 11th, 1903, the king and queen of Servia (q. v.) were murdered. Peter was elected king four days later. He entered Belgrade, after an absence of forty years, on June 24th, and on the following day took the oath of office and assumed the regular royal rights and duties. He received his crown on October 9th, 1904.

Peter, St., one of the twelve apostles of Jesus, was born at Bethsaida on the Sea of Galilee, but during the public ministry of Jesus had his home at Capernaum, where he appears to have lived with Andrew, his brother. His original name was Simon, to which Jesus added Cephas, from the Syriac kepha, a rock, the Greek word being petra, whence Peter. He was a fisherman, and was engaged in his daily work when Jesus called him and Andrew to be disciples, promising to make them "fishers of men.". Peter undoubtedly was regarded by Jesus with special favor and affection. In many respects he was an ideal disciple, warmly attached to his Master and ardent, fearless and energetic in the service of the cause he had espoused. It is not without reason, therefore, that Matthew heads his list of apostles with "the first, Simon, which is called Peter." This position of leadership among the apostles Peter continued to hold. Peter was the first mover in the election of a new apostle in place of Judas Iscariot; he was the spokesman of the other apostles on the day of Pentecost; and when Ananias and Sapphira were brought before the council, he was the judge who condemned them; and he was the first apostle to baptize a Gentile convert. Peter took an active part in the apostles' conference in Jerusalem, and at Antioch he labored in harmony with Paul for a time, but afterward arose the famous dispute between them, in which Paul says "he [Peter] was to be blamed " for separating himself from the Gentile converts and refusing longer to eat with them, lest he might offend certain Jewish converts. But Peter and Paul adjusted their differences, and Peter's references to Paul in his (Peter's) epistles are of the most appreciative kind. The history of Peter from this time rests mainly on tradition. It is generally believed that after remaining in Antioch for some time — according to Jerome and Euse-bius he was bishop there for years — his missionary labors extended to Pont us, Cap-padocia, Galatia, Bithynia and, some have

thought, even to Babylon. It is now generally conceded that he paid one or more visits to Rome and that he suffered martyrdom there. Tradition records that Peter was crucified with his head downward, he himself requesting this as being unworthy to be crucified in the same position as his Lord. Sienkiewicz makes him a heroic figure in Quo Vadis.

Pe'ter'borough, Can., has a population of 15,000. It is on Otonabee River, which furnishes electrical energy for numerous factories. Its normal school, collegiate institute and library are important educational features. It has an extensive plant for the manufacture of electric machinery and appliances and a large cereal-food establishment. There are summer resorts on the nearby Kawartha Lakes.

Pe'ters, Christian Henry Friedrich, a highly-distinguished American astronomer, was born at Koldenbtittel, Germany, Sept. 19, 1813. After completing his course at the University of Berlin, he traveled for several years in Palestine and other countries in the east. He then came to the United States, and, after serving in the coast survey, was elected professor of astronomy at Hamilton College, New York, in 1858. Professor Peters took part in the observation of the solar eclipse of Aug. 7, 1869, at Des Moines, la., and was at the head of the party sent by the United States government to New Zealand to observe the transit of Venus on Dec. 9, 1874, His party obtained over 200 photographs of the transit, and he was able to measure the apparent diameter of the planet, thus determining its size more nearly than had ever been done before. He died at Clinton, N. Y., July 18, 1890.

Petersburg, Va., the third city of Virginia, on the left bank of Appomattox River, 23 miles by rail south of Richmond. The falls above the city furnish water-power for foundries, cotton, flour and paper mills and tobacco factories. The ten months' siege of Petersburg was an important chapter in Grant's campaign against Richmond in 1864, Although attacked several times, it did not fall until evacuated by the Confederates in the spring'of 1865. Population 24,127.

Peterson, William, M.A., LL.D., C.M.G., principal of McGill University at Montreal since 1895, was born in Edinburg, May 29, 1856, and educated at the high school and university there and at the universities of Gottingen and Oxford. He has been given honorary degrees by the Universities of St. Andrews, New Brunswick, Princeton, Yale, Johns Hopkins and Pennsylvania. In addition to writing The Relation of the English-Speaking Peoples Dr. Peterson has edited many Latin works.

Pet'iole, the stalk-like portion of a leaf, as distinguished from the blade. Leaves without petioles are said to be sessile. See LEAF.

Petiolule (pet't-o-lul), in compound leaves the stalk-like portion of a leaflet, as distin

PETRARCH

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PETROLEUM

guished from the general stalk or petiole of the whole leaf.

Petrarch (pe'trdrk), Frances'co, one of

the earliest and greatest of modern lyric poets, was born at Arezzo, Italy, July 20, 1304, his parents being exiled from Florence at the time. The poet's infancy was passed in Tuscany until 1312, when his father determined to go to Avignon, whither the papal court had been transferred. There his studies began, and were continued later at Montpellier and Bologna. After his father's death Petrarch returned to Avignon. Having lost a large portion of his patrimony, he qualified for ecclesiastical preferment, but never took holy orders. It was in this early period that he first saw Laura, whose name he has immortalized in his lyrics, and who inspired him with a passion which, although unrequited, has become proverbial for its constancy and purity. The fame of Petrarch's learning and genius was such that he received the highest consideration from rulers and learned men; but the most glorious day of his life was when he was crowned poet-laureate by the senate of Rome on Easter Sunday of 1341. He died on July 18, 1374. See Henry Reeve's little book on Petrarch.

Pet'rel, the name for small sea-birds often seen flying over the ocean, the smallest of the web-footed birds. By the sailors they are commonly called Mother Carey's chickens. There are two kinds in the North Atlantic: Wilson's petrel and Leach's. The former nests in the southern hemisphere in February, and comes north in May. It is the form most frequently seen in crossing the Atlantic. They follow the ship for food thrown overboard. Leach's petrel nests on our coast from Maine northward, the nest a burrow under rock or in the ground, one white egg therein. Both these birds are small, being about seven and one half inches long. They are black with a white spot on the upper side at the base of the tail. Petrels number about seventy species. Several inhabit the southern seas, and the group includes the giant fulmar, about the size of one of the smaller albatrosses. The name petrel is a diminutive of Peter, and refers to the appearance they present of walking on the water.

Pe'trie, William M. F., an English author and explorer, was born at Charlton, England, June 3, 1853. Having been educated privately, he early devoted himself to a study of ancient British earthworks, but in 1880 turned his attention to the Nile

valley, where he has been practically ever since, although holding a professorship in University College, London, in the department of Egyptology. He discovered the Greek settlements at Naukratis and Daphnas; the prehistoric Egyptian settlement at Koptos; and the home of a new race at Nagada. He published an inscription of the Israelite war at Thebes. During the 2-0 years he has been in Egypt he has published 21 volumes upon the life and history of the ancient Egyptians. Perhaps that which attracted the most attention was the report of his work at Tel-el-Amarna, a modern Arab village on the eastern side of the Nile, midway between ancient Thebes and Memphis, where Amenophis IV, the "heretic" king, built his royal residence about 1500 B. C. A great many tablets in cuneiform characters were found, which are in the museums of London, Berlin and Cairo. These are mostly reports from the east, and contain many names known to Bible students.

Petro'Ieum, a fluid bitumen (q. v.), also known as mineral oil, rock-oil etc. In nature it occurs principally in the pores of porous rock. It is extracted fiom the rock through

OUTBURST OP PETROLEUM FROM WELL

wells, the same as water. The origin of petroleum has been much discussed, and the general belief is that it represents a distillation product of organic matter which was buried in the sediments when they accumulated. It is quite probable that both animal and plant matter have contributed to the production of petroleum. In profit-

PETREL

PEWEE

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PH^EOPHYCE^S

able petroleum-wells the porous layer containing the petroleum is usually covered by a relatively impervious layer, which prevents the oil from escaping upward. When well-boring penetrates this impervious layer, the oil has a chance to escape. It sometimes spouts with great force, like water in flowing wells. In other cases it has to be pumped. A well which flows when first made, often ceases to flow later and its oil has to be pumped. Still later it may cease altogether to yield oil, because the reservoir (the porous rock) from which it drew its supply, is exhausted. The average length of life of an oil-well is but a few years. The yield is very variable, some yielding but a few barrels a day, while others yield hundreds or even thousands a day. Such extraordinary flows are usually of short duration.

Petroleum is found in various parts of the world, the United States and Russia being the chief sources of supply. In the United States petroleum-wells were first developed in Pennsylvania, Ohio and West Virginia, but now extensive deposits have been opened in many other states, including Indiana, Illinois, Kentucky, Texas, Kansas, Oklahoma, Colorado and California. In 1910 the total production in the United States was 209,556,048 barrels, valued at $127,896,328.

Petroleum occurs in formations of various ages. That of western Ohio, Indiana, Michigan and Canada occurs in rocks of the Ordovician system; that of Tennessee and Kentucky in the Silurian; that of New York and Pennsylvania in the Devonian; that of West Virginia and eastern Ohio in the Lower Carboniferous; that of Kansas in the Carboniferous; and that of Texas and the western states in the Cretaceous and Tertiary formations. Petroleum, as derived from wells, is crude, and is subjected to refining processes before it is put on the market.

See Orton: Geology of Ohio, Vol. VII; U. S. Geological Survey, 8th Annual Report, Part I; and Bulletin of the Geological Society of America, Vol. I.

Pe'wee or Wood=Pewee, a small flycatcher sometimes confused with the phcebe. It is smaller than the latter, being about six and one half inches long, a trifle larger than the English sparrow. Its wings are decidedly longer than its tail; it is dark olive-green above, below whitish tinged with yellow; the under bill * is yellow. Unlike the

phoebe, it is shy rather than sociable, uttering its plaintive cry, even in the hottest days of mid-summer. It is a forest bird, one of the few birds fond of deep shade, is much at home high in tree-tops, common in old orchards where insects abound, and is occasionally seen in garden and roadside trees. It ranges in eastern North America from Florida to Canada, and is one of our common summer residents. It arrives from, the south toward the middle of May and returns south in October, wintering in Central America. During the nesting season it seeks deep seclusion and on a limb 20 or 40 feet above ground builds its nest, a rival to the humming-bird's in beauty. The nest is flat, made of moss, fine grasses and rootlets and cleverly edged with lichen or moss so that it may seem a very part of lichen or moss-covered limb. There are three or four cream-white eggs with lilac spots at the larger end. It has a dreamy note of pee-a-wee.

Phaedra (fe-dra), the wife of Theseus, is the central figure of a tragic story in Greek mythology, which was made the subject of dramas by Euripides and Sophocles. These dramas are now lost; but there is a tragedy upon the theme by Racine. Phaedra fell in love with the youthful Hippolytus, a son of Theseus and Hippolyte. The youth repelled her advances, whereupon she made a false accusation against him to Theseus, who in his wrath put Hippolytus to death. The queen, repenting of her crime, confessed all, and took her life with her own hand.

Phsedrus (f&drus), translator of ^Esop's (q. v.) Fables from Greek into Latin verse. While still young he came to Italy, and in Rome or some other city studied Ennius, whom he quotes in the epilogue to his third book. From the title of this book he appears to have been first the slave and afterwards the freedman of Augustus. Although Phasdrus only claimed to be a translator of JEsop, he was more; he wrote fables of his own, using the name of ^sop to recommend his verses. Phsedrus lived in the early part of the first Christian century.

Phaeophyceae(/e'0-/fo'£-0), plants forming one of the great groups of algae, commonly known as the brown algae or kelps. Almost all are marine, and are characteristic forms of the coast. All are anchored forms, their floating olive-green, yellow or brown bodies usually being buoyed by floats or air-bladders. The largest kelps are in the colder waters, and are also called wrack, tangle, dangle etc. Some are filamentous forms, but others are much more complex. The species of Laminaria are like huge floating and rooted leaves, frequently nine to ten feet long. The largest known Laminaria is an antarctic form, which rises to the surface from a sloping bottom, with a floating, leaf-like body 600 to 900 feet long. Other

PEWEE

PHAETHON

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PHEASANT

forms rise from trie sea-bottom like trees, with thick trunks, numerous branches and leaf-like appendages. One of the most common forms is the rockweed or fucus, whose forking body is full of swollen air-bladders. The noted Sargassum or gulf-weed is a mem-

FUCUS OR ROCKWEED

Che figure to the right shows the receptacle which contains the sex organs.

ber of this group. It is often torn from its anchorage by the waves and carried away from the coast by currents, collecting in the great sea-eddies produced by oceanic currents and forming Sargasso seas, as that of the North Atlantic.

Phaethon (fdf e-thon), "the shining one" in the writings of Homer and Hesiod, a frequent title of Helios the sun-god. In Greek mythology Phaethon also is the name of a son of Helios, famous for his unfortunate attempt to drive his father's chariot. Scarcely had the presumptuous youth seized the reins when the horses, perceiving his weakness, ran off and, ap-

E reaching too near earth, almost set it on re. Earth called upon Jupiter for help, and he struck down Phaethon with a thunderbolt. His sisters, who had harnessed the horses of the sun for him, were changed into poplars and their tears into amber.

Pha'lanx, the ancient Greek formation for heavy infantry, was a series of parallel columns standing close one behind the other. The oldest phalanx was the Spartan, in which the soldiers stood four, six or more, generally eight, deep. The Macedonian phalanx was 16 men deep. The heavy-armed phalanx was ordinarily flanked by peltasts or light infantry, who usually fought with javelins and slings.

Phanerogams (fan'er-o-gams), a name commonly applied to the spermatophytes or seed-plants, but now passing into disuse. It was given in contrast tc cryptogams (which see), and means that the sexual reproduction is evident, the stamens and

pistils being mistaken for sexual organs. See SPERMATOPHYTES.

Pharaoh (jd'ro or fd'ra-o), the name or title given in the Bible to the monarchs of Egypt. Like Mikado and Sublime 'Porte, it means The Lofty Gate. Although the term is only an official title, it is generally used as if it were a proper name; and there has been great difficulty in determining the particular monarchs who pass under this title in the Old Testment.

Pharisees, a Jewish sect or school distinguished for devotion to the Mosaic law and rigid observance of all rites and ceremonies of the Jewish church. The Pharisees believed in future immortality, while the Sadducees held that there was nothing in the Scriptures to warrant it. The Pharisees held all the traditional ordinances in equal reverence with the Mosaic institution, but the Sadducees rejected many traditional observances or varied them according to the traditions of their own families. In general, the Pharisees administered justice in a much milder manner than the Sadducees, as the latter took their stand upon the strict letter and would hear of no mercy when the code was clearly violated. Out of the Pharisees arose the great doctors and teachers of the law, usually termed scribes, and to them the most important offices were intrusted by later rulers.

Pheas'ant, a long-tailed game-bird, related to the partridge. There are about forty species, mostly large birds, with brilliant colors showing metallic luster. Among their

PHEASANT

colors are gold, copper, scarlet, green and blue. They mostly are natives of Asia and live in dense woods. The so-called English pheasant was naturalized in Great Britain before the Norman conquest, and is bred in the game-preserves of Europe. It has been introduced into the United States. The male has metallic tints of blue and green on the breast. It is about three feet long, including the tail, which represents half the length. The copper-pheasant of Japan and the ringed-neck pheasant of China have been introduced into this country. The pheasants of China, Tibet, India and tbr Malay Archipelago often are gorgeous ii» plumage. The golden pheasant of China and Tibet is striking, being mostly golden above and scarlet below, with a ruff of orange and black. The silver pheasant is silvery white above, penciled with black. Both birds have been introduced into Europe and America. The tail sometimes is very long; for example, in Reeve's pheasant of China it is five and one half feet. The ruffed grouse of North America is incorrectly called pheasant; being given this name in the south and in the north being called partridge. Our only native representative of the pheasant family is the wild turkey, once so generally abundant in the United States; but the introduction of foreign species has met with marked success. The ring-tailed pheasant is a beautiful and valuable game-bird. In introducing and rearing this bird the eastern and middle states have taken part, following the example of the Pacific coast.

Phelps, Elizabeth Stuart (Mrs. Herbert D. Ward), an American author, was born at Andover, Mass., Aug. 31, 1844, her father being Professor Austin Phelps of Andover Theological Seminary and her mother the daughter of Professor Moses Stuart of the same institution. Besides lecturing, writing for magazines and engaging in various kinds of work for the advancement of women, she wrote a number of novels, including Gates Ajar (which passed through several editions in the year of its publication), Beyond the Gates, Hedged In, The Silent Partner and Doctor Zay (in which the question of professional life for women is considered). In 1888 she married and in connection with her husband published The Master of the Magicians and other works. Died Jan. 28, 1911.

Phi Beta Kappa, a collegiate Greek-letter fraternity composed of the first third of the senior class in American colleges. This society was founded in 1776 in Raleigh Tavern at Williamsburgh, Virginia, by 44 undergraduates of William and Mary College, of whom John Marshall, afterward chief-justice of the United States, was one. Branches were established at Yale (1780) and Harvard (1781), and since then chapters have been formed in many universities and colleges, with an active membership in 1907 of close upon 13,000. Vassar was the first woman's college to receive a charter.

Phidias (fid′i-as) or Pheidias, the greatest sculptor of ancient Greece, was born about 500 B. C. To Phidias came such an opportunity as comes only to few artists. Pericles, having risen to the head of affairs, resolved to adorn Athens with public buildings, and he therefore not only gave Phidias a commission to execute the more splendid statues to be erected, but made him superintendent of all public works planned. He constructed the Propylæa and the Parthenon, the sculptured ornaments of which were executed under his direct superintendence, while the statue of Athené, in ivory and gold, was the work of Phidias himself. He also executed a colossal gold and ivory statue of Zeus for the Olympian temple in Elis; this is considered his masterpiece. In his later years Phidias was accused of appropriating a portion of the gold designed for the robe of Athené and of impiety in having placed his own likeness and that of Pericles upon the shield of the goddess, and was thrown into prison, where he died about 430 B. C.

Philadelphia, Pa., the chief city and seaport of Pennsylvania and the third city in population in the United States, is situated on the west bank of Delaware River at the mouth of Schuylkill River, 135 miles northeast of Washington and 88 southwest of New York.

The city is coextensive with the county, its greatest length being about twenty miles and its breadth from five to ten. Among the most noted buildings are Independence Hall or old State House, occupied by the Continental congress in 1776, the United States mint and custom-house, the post-office, the Masonic Temple which cost over $1,500,000, Girard College, the Academy of Fine Arts, the Academy of Natural Sciences and the University of Pennsylvania. The city hall, begun in 1871 and completed in 1895, is of Massachusetts marble. It covers more than four acres, has 520 rooms, and is the largest city building in the world. The dome and tower, 537½ feet high, is surmounted by a statue of Penn 36 feet in height. Not far from $20,000,000 have been expended on it. Fairmount Park, in which was held the Centennial Exposition of 1876, contains nearly 3,000 acres, and is bisected by the Schuylkill through its entire length of ten miles. In this park is the first established zoological garden in the United States. Fairmount water-works supply the city with over 100,000,000 gallons of water daily. The public schools, in which there are over 3,500 teachers and 150,000 pupils, are maintained at an annual cost of $5,250,000, and there are over 35,000 pupils in Roman Catholic schools. Special schools are conducted for children who fail to maintain their required standing in school. There also are cooking schools, evening schools, an elementary manual training school and an industrial art-school. Williamson Trade School, near the city, received an endowment of nearly $2,000,000, and Drexel Institute, a day and night school, gives technical courses in chemistry, architecture, mechanical engineering, cooking, dressmaking and other crafts and arts. The oldest art-school in this country is the Pennsylvania Academy of Fine Arts in this city. Philadelphia is the seat of Girard College (q. v.) and of other highly endowed educational institutions, including the University of Pennsylvania, La Salle (Roman Catholic) College, ten medical and law colleges, four dental, several schools of pharmacy and 50 hospitals. Philadelphia is the second manufacturing city in the Union, both in persons employed and in extent and variety of productions. An aggregate capital of $520,178,654 is employed in manufacturing, and the value of the productions is $750,000,000 annually, while 250,000 persons are employed. The building of locomotives and the manufacture of iron and steel implements, carpets, woolens, upholstery goods and cotton goods employ about 125,000 workmen and produce $350,000,000 yearly, and there are sugar refineries, oil refineries, breweries and great chemical works, besides a very considerable foreign commerce.

Philadelphia was founded in 1682 by William Penn, made the capital of Pennsylvania in the following year, and was the central point of the colonies during the War of Independence. In Carpenter's Hall, which is still preserved, the first congress met in 1774, and in Independence Hall the Declaration of Independence was signed in 1776. Here the Federal Union was adopted in 1778, and here the constitution was framed in 1787. Philadelphia was the capital of the Federal Union from 1790 to 1800. Population 1,549,008. See Pennsylvania and Pennsylvania, University of. Consult Philadelphia and Its Environs.

Philæ (fī′lḗ), an island in the Nile, near Assuan and south of Syene in Nubia. It is situated near the first cataract, and is a small granite rock, fringed with rich verdure, about 1,200 feet long and 450 broad, almost covered with ancient buildings of great architectural beauty. The kiosk, Pharaoh's bed, a roofless hall, belongs to the Greek and Roman period, and consists of fourteen great columns with capitals of various patterns, joined at the lower part by solid walls, 63 feet long and 48 feet wide. The great temple of Isis, to whom the island was sacred, was built by the Ptolemies. It contains representations of the birth, bringing up, death and embalmment of Osiris. It was converted into a Christian church in A. D. 557. See Assuan Dam.

Philemon (fī́ lē′mŭn) and Baucis (ba′sĭs), an old married couple in Phrygia, famed in antiquity for true love and splendid hospitality. Ovid, the Latin poet, tells how once Jupiter and Mercury wandering through Phrygia, both in human form, presented themselves at many a door as weary travelers seeking rest and shelter, and the inhospitable inhabitants would not receive them. At last they came to the small thatched cottage of Philemon and Baucis, and were received most hospitably. Philemon placed a seat and Baucis, bustling and attentive, spread a cloth upon it and begged the visitors to be seated. The fire was kindled and food prepared, and a beechen bowl was filled with warm water that the guests might wash. Wine was served with the food, and while the repast proceeded Philemon and Baucis were astonished that the wine, as fast as poured out, renewed itself in the pitcher. Thus they recognized their divine guests. They immediately fell upon their knees and begged forgiveness for their poor entertainment. Jupiter spoke of the inhospitable treatment that they had received from their neighbors, then led them to a nearby hill where they saw their own humble cottage turned into a magnificent temple while their neighbors were destroyed by a flood which Jupiter caused. Philemon and Baucis, in accordance with their own expressed wish, were made priests and guardians of the temple, where they served many years, and left this life at one and the same hour.

Phil′ip the Bold, son of John the Good of France and founder of the second and last ducal house of Burgundy (q. v.), was born on Jan. 15, 1342. He was present at the battle of Poitiers in 1356, when only 14, and displayed such heroic courage in risking his own life to save his father's, that he earned the title of Le Hardi or The Bold. He shared his father's captivity in England, and on his return to France in 1360 received as the reward of his bravery the duchy of Touraine and, in 1363, the duchy of Burgundy also. Flanders, Artois, Rethel, Nevers and the county of Burgundy fell to him by the death of his father-in-law, the count of Flanders, in 1384, and his firm and

PHILIP THE GOOD

1467

PHILIP IV

wise government quickly won esteem and affection from his subjects. He encouraged arts, manufactures and commerce, and his territory was one of the best governed in Europe. During the minority and imbecility of Charles VI of France, his nephew, he acted as regent of that kingdom, and displayed great wisdom and ability both in preventing insurrection within the state and in defending it against the attacks of the English. He died on April 27, 1404.

Philip the Good, son of John the Fearless and grandson of Philip the Bold, was born at Dijon, June 13, 1396. In order to avenge the death of his father, who had been assassinated on the bridge of Montereau at the instigation of the dauphin (afterward Charles VII), when he succeeded to the duchy he entered into an alliance with Henry V of England, recognizing him as the rightful regent of France and heir to the throne after Charles VI's death. This agreement, although it disregarded the terms of the Salic law, was sanctioned by the king and the states-general of France in the treaty of Noyes in 1420; but the dauphin refused to accept it and took up arms. He was, however, defeated at CreVant and Verneuil, and driven beyond the Loire. Some time after this, on account of insults from the English viceroy, Philip made a final peace with Charles, who gladly accepted the hard conditions prescribed by Philip. The English in revenge committed great havoc among the merchant navies of Flanders (q, v.\ which so irritated Philip that he declared war against them and, with the assistance of the king of France, gradually expelled them from their French possessions. Under Philip, Burgundy was the most prosperous and tranquil state in Europe; and in spite of the several insurrections in Ghent and in Bruges, caused by the imposition of heavy taxes, he was greatly beloved by his people. He died at Bruges, July 15, 1467. See Barante's History of the Dukes of Burgundy and the House of Valois.

Philip II of France, called Philip Augustus on account of his great abilities and successful administration, was born on August 21, 1165, an<3- died at Nantes, July 14, 1223. He was crowned joint king with Louis VII, his father, in 1179, and on the death of the latter in the year following he came into full possession of the kingdom. He was one of the greatest monarchs of the Capetian dynasty, while he confirmed his power by marrying Isabella of Hainault, the last direct descendant of the Carlovingians. On the accession of Richard the Lion-hearted (q. v.) to the throne of England in 1189, Philip and he set out together on the third crusade. After staying three months in the Holy Land, Philip returned home, binding himself by a solemn oath not to molest Richard's dominions; but very soon after his arrival in France he invaded Normandy while

Richard was a prisoner in Germany. Richard's release from imprisonment and his return to England occasioned a war between the two monarchs, which continued till 1199, when peace was secured through the mediation of Pope Innocent III. Richard dying shortly after, war again broke out between France and England on account of the rival claims of King John (q. v.) and Arthur, his nephew, to Richard's French possessions. Philip espoused Arthur's cause, and after the murder of that prince took possession of Normandy, Maine, Anjou and Touraine, and added them to his dominions. The great victory of Bouvines, which Philip won, Aug. 29, 1214, over the English and Emperor Otho of Germany, firmly established his throne, and he was able to devote the remainder of his life to reforms of justice and to building and fortifying Paris.

Philip IV, surnamed Le Bel or The Fair, king of France, was born at Fontaine-bleau in 1268. He succeeded his father, Philip the Rash, in 1285, and by his marriage with Queen Joanna of Navarre he obtained Navarre, Champagne and Brie. The chief feature of his reign was his contest with Pope Boniface VIII, which grew out of his attempt to levy taxes from the clergy, which the pope directed them not to pay. In 1300 Philip threw the papal legate into prison and summoned the three estates of France — clergy, nobles and burghers — to which Boniface replied with the bull, of Unam Sanctam. Philip caused the bull to be publicly burned, and confiscated the property of the prelates who had sided with the pope. Boniface then excommunicated him, but Philip sent William of Nogaret to Rome, who, with the aid of the Colonnas, seized and imprisoned the pope. Though released after a few days by a popular rising, Boniface soon afterwards died. In 1305 Philip obtained the elevation of one of his own creatures to the papal chair as Clement V and seated him at Avignon, which was the residence of the head of the church for 70 years thereafter This period of papal history is often called "the 70 years' captivity." Philip compelled the pope to condemn the Templars in 1310 and to decree the abolition of the order two years later. They made a heroic defense, but were condemned and burned by thousands, their wealth being appropriated by the cruel and rapacious Philip. Jacques de Molay, the grandmaster, was burned on March 18, 1314, and at the stake he is said to have summoned Philip to appear before the judgment seat of Alimighty God within a year and a day and the pope within 40 days. Whether this summons was actually uttered or not, both the pope and the king died within the periods assigned, the latter's death occurring on Nov. 29, 1314. Philip

PHILIP VI

1468

PHILIP II

strove for the suppression of feudalism and the introduction of Roman law.

Philip VI (of Valois), king of France, was born in 1293, and became regent on the death of Charles IV in 1328. Philip remained regent during the pregnancy of Charles' widow, but when she was delivered of a daughter, he had himself crowned, the Salic law excluding females from the throne. Philip's right was disputed by Edward III (q. v.) of England, grandson of Philip IV, whose mother was the sister of Charles IV. Edward claimed that although his mother could not herself inherit the crown of France, he, as her son, might. In support of this claim, weak as it was, Edward declared war against Philip in I337> which was the beginning of the long wars between England and France, which were brought to a conclusion only by the victories of Joan of Arc (q. v.), nearly 100 years later. (See HUNDRED YEARS' WAR.) In 1347 a truce was concluded between the two, which continued till after Philip's death on Aug. 22, 1350.

Philip of Mac'edon, father of Alexander the Great, was born 382 B. C., and came to the throne in 360 B. C. He was surrounded with many difficulties and dangers, all of which soon disappeared before his decision, energy and wise policy. In one year he secured the safety of his kingdom, and was ready to enter upon a policy of aggression, his object being to reduce every Hellenic state. The Greek towns on the coast of Macedonia were the first objects of attack. In Thrace he captured the small town of Crenides, which, under its new name of Philippi, soon acquired great wealth and fame. After a few years of comparative leisure he advanced into Thessaly, and ultimately to the Pass of Thermopylae, which he did not attempt to force, as it was strongly guarded by Athenians. After capturing all the towns of Chalcidice, the last of which was the .city of Olynthus, he made peace with the Thracians and, next year, with the Athenians. It was during this siege of Olynthus that Demosthenes delivered the famous orations in which he sought in vain to arouse his countrymen to a sense of their danger and cause them to resist the aggressions of the powerful and energetic Macedonian. Philip was now requested by the Thebans to interfere in their behalf in the Sacred War raging between them and the Phocians. He marched into Phocis, destroyed its cities, and sent many of its inhabitants as colonists to Thrace. In 339 B. C. the Amphictyonic council, composed of several Grecian states, declared war against the Locrians, and next year it appointed Philip commander-in-chief of all their forces. The Athenians were at last alarmed at his approach into Greece in this capacity, and formed a league with

the Thebans against him; but their united forces were utterly defeated at Chasronea in 338 B. C.; and Philip was now master of all Greece. Deputies from the different states met in congress at Corinth, and, after resolving to make war on the Persian king, chose Philip as leader. Philip was busily engaged in preparations for this great enterprise, when he was assassinated at a festival to celebrate the marriage of his daughter with Alexander of Epirus, 336 B. C., and was succeeded by Alexander the Great. Philip was faithless in the observance of treaty obligations and utterly unscrupulous as to the means by which he gained his end; but his great ability both as a king and a soldier is conceded by all historians. See ALEXANDER THE GREAT, DEMOSTHENES and MACEDONIA.

Philip II (king of Spain), son of Charles V, was born at Valladolid, May 21, 1527. In 1543 Philip married Mary of Portugal, and their son was ill-fated Don Carlos. Eight years after her death he married Queen Mary of England, who was several years his senior. After remaining in England with her about a year, he returned to Brussels. By the abdication of his father, Philip became sovereign of Spain, the two Sicilies, the Netherlands, Milan, Naples, Mexico, Peru and the Spanish possessions in Africa and the East Indies. Philip's marriage with Queen Mary was not a happy one; and after her death in 1558 he married Isabella of France. Philip was an intense bigot in religion, and put himself at the head of the Roman Catholic party in Europe; but the main object of his policy was to concentrate all power in himself and to suppress everything in the nature of free institutions within his dominions. He found the inquisition a very effective means of tyranny in Spain; but in the Netherlands a formidable revolt was organized, and, under the leadership of William the Silent, the seven provinces formed the union of Utrecht in 1579, and maintained a successful war against Spain until their independence was fully achieved, although William himself was assassinated at the instigation of Philip in 1584. Philip organized the Invincible Armada for the conquest of England, placing it under Alexander Far-nese, Prince of Parma; but only defeat and disaster resulted. (See ARMADA.) The one great triumph of Philip's reign was the naval victory of Lepanto, won by his half-brother, Don John of Austria, over the Turks. The desperate heroism of the Netherlanders and the defeat of the Armada, added to financial distress at home, embittered Philip's last years and he died of a lingering and loathsome disease at the Escorial, Sept. 13, 1598, being succeeded by Philip III, his son by a fourth wife. Philip possessed considerable ability, but little political wisdom. Although he undertook many vast enterprises, scarcely any led to a profitable result. He was cold and austere without being virtuous. Although a bigot and a persecutor, he had no real respect for honor or religion. There is hardly a character in history whom historians have more unanimously united in condemning. See the histories of Prescott, Motley and Froude.

Philip V, the first Bourbon king of Spain, was born at Versailles, Dec. 19, 1683, his father being the Dauphin Louis, son of Louis XIV of France. In 1700 the Spanish crown was bequeathed to him by Charles II. He entered in 1701, and after a long struggle with Archduke Charles of Austria was left in possession of his throne by the Peace of Utrecht in 1713. His queen dying next year, Philip soon married Elizabeth Farnese of Parma, the termagant (to use Carlyle's phrase) who for 30 years disturbed the peace of Europe. Her dearest wish was to drive the Hapsburgs out of Italy in the interests of her sons by a former marriage; but all her efforts resulted only in securing the two Sicilies. Spain joined the coalition against Maria Theresa of Austria (q. v.); and Elizabeth's younger son was at first successful in conquering the Milanese; but as soon as the Silesian War was closed by the Peace of Dresden, the Austrian queen sent her troops into Italy and drove out the Spaniards. At this crisis Philip, who had been in mental stupor for years, died at Madrid, July 9 1746.

Philip, sachem of the Wampanoag tribe of Indians, was the second son of Massasoit (q. v.), who for nearly 30 years had been the stanch ally of the Pilgrim settlers. In 1661 Philip succeeded his elder brother and kept the treaties of his father for several years. But at length, goaded by the encroachments of the whites, he formed a confederation of tribes, amounting to nearly 10,000 warriors, and in 1675 King Philip's War broke out. The Indians surprised and murdered many colonists, but were eventually overcome, and in 1676 Philip himself was captured and slain in Rhode Island. Afterward his body was drawn and quartered and his head was exposed on a gibbet at Plymouth for a number of years. See Entertaining History of King Philip's War and Irving's Sketch-Book.

Philip, John Woodward, an American naval officer, was born at New York City, Aug. 26, 1840. In 1861 he graduated from the Naval Academy, and served as midshipman on board of various vessels blockading the Gulf harbors and in the James River fleet. He became a lieutenant in 1862; lieutenant-commander in 1866; commander in 1874, captain in 1889; and commodore in 1898. He was wounded at Stone River during the Civil War, During the years of peace he made a tour of the world in command of Woodruff Scientific Expedition (1877). He was in command of the Texas during the fight off Santiago Bay in the Spanish-American War; and his request of his men not to cheer over their dying foes excited widespread commendation. He was a very earnest Chrsistian soldier, and led his sailors and marines in prayer at the close of the fight above mentioned. He for a time was in command of the North Pacific squadron, and later assigned to the command of the Navy-Yard at Brooklyn, where he died, with the rank of rear-admiral, June 30, 1900.

Philippine Islands, The, an archipelago in the Pacific southeast of Hong-Kong, China, were discovered by Magellan in 1521. He was slain a few months later upon one of the smaller islands during the progress of one of the numerous tribal wars. Spain attempted to make good her claim to these lands a few years afterwards by sending out an expedition under Villabos, who named the islands in honor of the heir to the Spanish throne, afterward Philip II. In 1565 Legaspi landed at Cebu with 400 troops. This force was increased three years later, and the conquest of the islands was accomplished. The first attempts at settlement were made upon Cebu; but in 1581 Manila was founded, and it has since continued to be the chief city. The islands remained a possession of Spain until ceded to the United States. Previous to this a revolt of the Filipinos under the leadership of Aguinaldo (q. v.) occurred. In January, 1898, peace was agreed upon by a compact between the Spanish authorities and Aguinaldo, the terms of which do not appear to have been kept by either party. In April, 1898, war broke out between Spain and the United States, the first serious encounter being the battle of Manila Bay, May 1, 1898, when the Spanish squadron under Admiral Montojo was completely destroyed. At the close of this war Spain (by treaty on Dec. 10, 1898) ceded the Philippines to the United States, $20,000,000 being paid to Spain. Meantime Aguinaldo proclaimed the Philippines an independent republic and thus brought on a conflict between his followers and the United States, which was terminated only by his capture in April, 1901.

By act of Congress (1902) a complete civil government was established and the office of military governor and military rule were terminated. The government is composed of a civil governor and nine commissioners, of whom four are Americans and five Filipinos. There are 37 provinces ^[2], each with a governor. The supreme court has seven judges. There are 17 judicial districts.

Following an act of Congress, a general election of delegates to the Philippine Assembly was held in 1907; the new assembly was chosen on July 20 and was opened on Oct. 10 of that year. Manila, upon the island of Luzon, with a population of 219,941, is the seat of government.

The islands and islets number about 3,000. The largest are Luzon (40,969 square miles) and Mindanao (36,292 square miles); and the total area of habitable islands, including the Sulus, is estimated to be about 127,853 square miles. There are about 25,000 Americans and Europeans and about 100,000 Chinese. The inhabitants mostly are of the Malayan race, but there are some tribes of Negritos. The population as shown by census of 1910 is 8,276,802, of whom a little more than one million belong to wild tribes.

Climate. The climate is one of the most favorable to be found in the tropics. At Manila the mercury during July and August rarely goes below 79° or above 85°. During the year the extremes are said to be 61° and 97°, with an annual mean of 81°.

Resources. Although agriculture is the chief industry, only a small part of the arable land is under cultivation. The soil is very fertile, and with improved methods the cultivatable area is capable of sustaining a much larger population. The Philippine Bureau of Agriculture is carrying on investigations respecting the cultivation and improvement of the islands' products, and experimental farms have been established from which improved varieties of seeds, roots and plants are distributed. Attention is also given to combating destructive insects, methods of curing tobacco, the improvement of live-stock etc. The Philippine Forestry Bureau provides plans and rules for the protection and working of the wide forests of valuable timber, gum and dyewood. Not much has yet been done towards the development of the mineral resources, but preliminary work, prospecting etc. have been actively taken up. Lignite and iron are found in several provinces, and gold in all the larger islands. Silver, platinum, copper, lead, manganese, sulphur, petroleum and gypsum are also found The one chief product is hemp; cocoanuts, sugar, tobacco and coffee following in the order named. The total value of imports in 1911 was $49,833,722 and of exports $39,778,629.

Education. Education is under the direction of a secretary of public instruction. The islands are divided into 35 educational divisions, each under a superintendent, with a superior school-board and local board. There are 8,500 Filipino primary school teachers. Many are Americans, but the majority are Filipinos paid by the government or the municipalities. English is taught in all the public schools, of which there are over 3,000. A school for training teachers has been opened, and industrial and trade schools established. The University of Manila has several faculties, including one of medicine. There are over 8,000 miles of telegraph lines and cable. A railway 120 miles long has been built between Manila and Dagupan, and there are two branch lines.

Philippopolis (fĭl′ĭp-pŏp′ō̇-lĭs), capital of eastern Rumelia or southern Bulgaria (q. v.), on the navigable Maritza, 110 miles from Adrianople. It manufactures silk, cotton, tobacco and leather. Population 45,707, of whom half are Bulgarians, the remainder being Turks, Greeks etc. Philippopolis was occupied by the Russians in 1878, and in 1885 a revolution broke out here which led to the incorporation of eastern Rumelia (q. v.) with Bulgaria.

Philistines (fĭl-ĭs′tĭnz) (strangers), a people mentioned in the Bible as in frequent conflict with the Jews. They lived on the coast of the Mediterranean to the southwest of Judea. It has been asserted that they originated in prehistoric Crete. Their first appearance as enemies of Israel was during the period of the Judges. They were subject to five princes who ruled over Gaza, Ashdod, Askalon, Gath and Ekron. In the time of Eli they were so powerful that they even carried away the ark. Saul, the first king of Israel, was engaged in frequent conflicts with them, and both he and his sons fell in a disastrous battle against them at Gilboa. David won many victories over them, and under Solomon most of their territory was annexed, and they continued in subjection to Judah until the reign of Ahaz, three hundred years later, when they revolted and made great havoc in the territory of Judah. Hezekiah, the son and successor of Ahaz, however, subdued them and brought them to obedience, without the aid of the Egyptians. Under the later kings of Judah they appear, from the menaces of the prophets, to have brought many calamities on the Jews — if they did not recover their full independence. In the time of the Maccabees the Philistines were Syrian subjects, and in the time of Herod the Great they appear no longer to have an existence as a separate race or nation, even the name of their country being merged in that of Palestine.

Phil′lips Ex′eter Academy, preparatory school in Exeter, N. H., for boys of exceptionally high standing. It was founded in 1781 by Dr. John Phillips, a wealthy and philanthropic citizen of Exeter. It was founded on a broad foundation and has been manned by men who were capable of inspiring pupils with a desire for the best in life. Few institutions even of higher learning have attracted students from a wider field. Among its matriculants in 1906—7 were students from thirty-three states, the District of Columbia, Hawaii and five foreign countries. Its growth during the last decade was marked. Attendance increased from 192 to 443, buildings from 9 to 17, instructors from 10 to 21 and the annual income from $37,000 to $150,000. It is distinctively a preparatory school. About seventy-five per cent. of its graduates actually go to college.

Phillips, Wen′dell, the distinguished orator and abolitionist, was born of wealthy and aristocratic parentage at Boston, Mass., Nov. 29, 1811. After several years' study in the public Latin school he entered Harvard, from which he graduated in 1831. While yet in his collegiate course Phillips was noted not only for superior scholarship but for oratorical gifts and marked purity and dignity of character. In 1834, having taken a three years' course of legal study, Phillips was admitted to the bar at Boston. A little more than a year after entering upon the practice of his profession he saw the mobbing of Garrison (q. v.) at Boston, which made a deep and lasting impression and awoke serious thought upon the evils of slavery. It was in Faneuil Hall that Phillips, then only 26, delivered the first of those marvelous philippics that did so much to arouse antislavery sentiment, the occasion being a meeting to denounce the murder of Lovejoy at Alton, Ill., for advocating anti-slavery sentiments in his paper published at that place. From that time Phillips continued the faithful and unflinching opponent of slavery, raising his voice against it throughout the land and devoting his gifts and varied powers to the single purpose of its abolition and destruction. Although the matter of Phillips' speeches was nearly always fiery and impassioned, his delivery as well as his manner was invariably calm, reserved, perfectly easy and natural, giving him a power over audiences that compelled interest and attention, even when they most disagreed with him. Very appropriately was he called The Unagitated Agitator. He died at Boston on Feb. 2, 1884.

Phillips′burg, N. J., a city of Warren County, on Delaware River, opposite Easton, Pa., where the river is crossed by two iron bridges. It is situated in a fine agricultural, limestone and iron-ore region. Besides extensive ironworks, a rolling-mill, boiler and machine works and a reaper and mower factory, there are a silk-mill and railroad-shops for three railroads. There are good public, parochial and business schools, several churches, municipal buildings and a public library. Population 13,903.

Philoctetes (fil-ok-tē′tēz), a famous archer, the friend and armor-bearer of Hercules, who bequeathed him his bow and poisoned arrows. As one of the suitors of Helen he led seven ships against Troy; but being bitten in the foot by a snake or, according to one account, wounded by his own arrows, as his wound gave forth an unendurable stench, the Greeks left him on Lemnos, where he remained ten years. But an oracle declaring that Troy could not be taken without the aid of Philoctetes, Ulysses and Neoptolemus were sent to Lemnos to bring him to the Grecian camp, where, healed by Æsculapius or his sons, he slew Paris and otherwise assisted in the capture of Troy.

Philology (fĭ-lŏl′ō̇-gy̆). This word is derived from two Greek words, philos, a friend, and logos, a word; and like many other words it has varied greatly in its meaning. In the time of Plato it meant the love of discussion, confined mainly to the moral and social questions in which Plato delighted; and the method of discussion was the Socratic one of asking questions. At Alexandria the philologer gave attention to all the knowledge of his day, brought together for the first time in its great library; but the scholars of Alexandria applied themselves especially to the study of the older Greek literature. It widened again at the revival of learning to include the study of grammar, rhetoric, literature, poetry, archæology — in a word, all the “humane” studies. Since the middle of the 19th century the word has been used in a more restricted sense. Whereas philology formerly meant the study of literature, it is now limited to the study of languages, apart from the literature embodied in them. It is the science which deals with the origin, development and general structure of languages and of language as a whole. In its progress not only has great light been thrown on the origin of different languages; but they have been classified and grouped, and many languages which seemed to have no points of similarity have been traced to a common origin. Sir William Jones, the great oriental linguist, declared that “no philologer could examine Sanskrit, Greek and Latin without believing them to have sprung from the same source, which, perhaps, no longer exists. There is a similar reason, though not quite so forcible, for believing that both the Gothic and the Celtic had the same origin with the Sanskrit.” There are two main classes of languages: Those which show no signs of inflection — for example, those in which the plural of man is not formed by a vowel-change (as our men) nor by an added suffix (as in Latin homin-es), but by a combination of two words (as our man-kind); and second, those which are inflected in greater or less degree. This class is divided into two great families: the Semitic, comprising Hebrew Aramaic, Arabic, Syriac; the Indo-Germanic or Aryan family, the chief languages of which are Sanskrit, Armenian, Albanian, Latin, Celtic, Teutonic or Germanic and Slavonic. See Isaac Taylor's Origin of the Aryans.

Philosophy (Greek philos, a friend, and sophia, wisdom). A complete and final definition of this word is impossible, as the objects of the science, its methods and even the possibility of its being or becoming a science are matters of debate between different schools. Philosophy has

PHLOEM

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been called the mother of the sciences, as it was only by slow degrees that the separate sciences came into life, each developed and formulated by men imbued with the philosophical spirit, which is the "love of wisdom." As the number of special sciences increased, philosophy could no longer in a strict sense "take all knowledge to be her province"; but her claim to be the only science of the universe as a whole was not thereby given up, but rather emphasized. Unity and harmony in one conception of the universe are the aim which philosophy always has in view. Whether this ideal can ever be reached by man is another question; but the conception of a complete system of things satisfactory to the season %and the moral sense must ever be the spring "and inspiration of philosophical effort. The philosopher, therefore, always has his eye upon the whole, and his function is to study the relation of all the parts to the whole and to one another. No one thing can be fully undertood except in the light of its relation to other things, and therefore the philosopher seeks to penetrate the reason and essence of things and to know the why and the ivherefore of all the phenomena of nature. The history of philosophy is an important part of philosophical study. Indeed, philosophy cannot be studied with profit apart from its history.

Thales of Miletus is generally reckoned the first Hellenic philosopher, and the history of philosophy is generally said to commence at his time. It is usual to divide the history of philosophy into three distinct periods: Ancient or Greek philosophy, from B. C. 600 to about 500 A. D.; medieval philosophy, from 500 to 1600; and modern philosophy, from 1600 to the present era. Ancient philosophy is subdivided into three periods: The pre-socratic philosophers — Pythagoras, Parmenides, Anaxagoras and others — who devoted their attention mainly to the phenomena of external things; Socrates and the sophists who turned man's attention upon himself; and the idealistic systems of Plato and Aristotle. The Stoics, Epicureans, Skeptics and, later, the Neo-Platonists and other schools make up the history of philosophy until the downfall of the Roman Empire and the death of Boe'tius. Medieval philosophy is mainly an effort to apply the logic of Aristotle to the doctrines of the church and to harmonize his philosophy with Christian ' theology. Bacon and Descartes, in the beginning of the 17th century, may be considered the founders of modern philosophy, to give an adequate history of which requires volumes. See English translations of histories by Erdmann, Ueberweg and Schwegler.

Phloem (fto'em), (in plants). A woody strand is known as a vascular bundle, because it contains different forms of the cells known as vessels. Each individual vascular

bundle consists of two elements, the wood and the bast. The bast elements of a vascular bundle taken together are called the phloem in contrast with the wood elements, called the xylem. In an ordinary tree it is the xylem tissue which accumulates as the permanent wood, while the phloem tissue forms the fibrous lining of the bark. In the stems of monocotyledons, as the cornstalk, the vascular bundles are scattered and no bark is formed, but each bundle is composed of phloem on its outer side and xylem on its inner side. In the vascular bundles of the stems of most ferns the phloem completely surrounds the xylem; while in all roots the phloem and xylem occur in alternate strands about the center. The phloem is concerned in the transfer of foods

Phlox (floks), a genus of the Polemonium family containing about 30 species, which are natives of North America and northern Asia, nearly all of the species being found in North America. They are mostly hardy herbs with usually showy red, violet or white flowers. The perennial species are among the most popular of garden plants. P e r h a ps one of the best phloxes of cultivation is P. drum-mondii, occurring throughout Texas and cultivated everywhere. P.sub-ulata and its varieties are the best known of the dwarf creeping kinds, and are frequently called ground or moss pinks. P. maculata% the wild sweet-william probably is the best known and widely distributed of the wild forms.

Phocion (fd'sht-un), an Athenian general, was born about the end of the 5th century B. C. Although of humble origin, he studied under Plato and perhaps under Diogenes. In 341 B. C. Phocion was successful in overcoming the Macedonian party in Euboea and in restoring the ascendency of Athens. Next year, being sent to the relief of Byzantium, he forced Philip to abandon the siege of that city and to evacuate the Chersonesus. A little later, however, he placed himself in opposition to Demosthenes and others who advocated resistance to Philip's demands. After the assassination of Philip in 336 B. C. we find him striving to repress the desire for war among the Athenians, on account of which many regarded him as a traitor*

PHLOX but this charge doubtless was unjust. On the death of Alexander the Great Phocion endeavored in vain to hinder the Athenians from going to war with Antipater. After the death of Antipater he was involved in the intrigues of Cassander, and was forced to flee to Phocis, where he was delivered to the Athenians and condemned to drink hemlock (317 B. C.).

Phœ′be, a small fly-catcher nesting about houses and other structures. Its nest of moss and mud may be placed under bridges, in barns, sheds, the shelter of piazzas and other similar situations. It is about seven inches long, dark above and white below, tinged with yellow. Its bill is black. It is sometimes called pewee, but that name is better reserved for the wood-pewee. It winters north of the frost-line. It owes its name to its song of pewit-phœbe. See Pewee.

Phœ′bus (“the bright”), an epithet and afterwards a name of Apollo. It had reference to the youthful beauty of the god and to the radiance of the sun, when, at a later period, Apollo became identified with Helios the sun-god.

Phœnicia (fē-nĭs′i-a), a territory on the eastern coast of the Mediterranean, north of Judea. The boundary lines differed at different times, but its length generally was about 200 miles and its average width about 20 miles. It is impossible to say when the first Phœnician settlers entered the country; but it is generally conceded that they came, not from one region, but from several different directions, and that they grew into one nationality very slowly. The history covers nearly 2,000 years; and, although our sources of information are meager, it may be divided into four distinct periods. The first of these comprises the immigration and gradual development of the tribes until the historical time when Sidon began to take the lead, about 1,500 B. C. The second period dates from the conquest of Palestine by the Hebrews, when Sidon had already become the “first born of Canaan,” as recorded in Genesis. The flourishing state of commerce and manufactures is seen from many passages in Homer. The gradual ascendency of the rival city of Tyre marks the beginning of the third period, in which Phœnicia attained her greatest power and glory, her ships covering every sea and her commerce extending far and wide. During the reigns of David and Solomon (980-917 B. C.) friendly relations existed between the Israelites and the Phœnicians under Hiram, king of Tyre. As each country needed what the other could supply, a close alliance was formed, between Hiram and Solomon especially, Hiram furnishing a portion of the material for Solomon's temple. By this time, too, the Phœnicians had not only planted colonies on the coasts and islands of the Ægean and Mediterranean Seas, but had passed through the Strait of Gibraltar and established themselves on the western coast of Spain and of Africa, while their alliance with the Hebrews permitted them to find their way to the Indies by the Red Sea. Although at first they traded in the wares of Egypyt and Assyria, they soon became manufacturers on an extensive scale. Their two chief manufactures were glass (q. v.) and the purple dye obtained from a shellfish of the Mediterranean. Purple was one of the most noted luxuries of ancient times — especially in Asia. In temples and palaces purple garments, hangings, curtains and veils were used extensively; and in Susa alone Alexander the Great found a store of purple worth 5,000 talents. Sidon's principal production was glass — invented there by accident, it was said; but most probably the invention came from Egypt. The mining operations of the Phœnicians were extensive; and they well-understood how to work metals. The description of mining in Job xxviii. 1-11, must have been derived from a sight of Phœnician mining. The art of pounding bronze had certainly reached a high degree of perfection to enable Hiram to execute such works for Solomon's temple as are described in the Bible. Hiram's reign seems to have been the beginning of the end of Phœnicia's prosperity and glory. He was succeeded by his son Baleastartus, who died after a reign of seven years, and a long series of political calamities and civil wars then ensued. The fourth and last period of Phœnician history may be dated from the middle of the 8th century B. C., when Shalmaneser, king of Assyria, besieged Tyre for five years without being able to take it. Peace was concluded on terms favorable to Tyre; but two centuries later Phœnicia was conquered by Assyria. She was afterwards conquered by Nebuchadrezzar, and remained subject to Babylon until the capture of that city by Cyrus the Great, when she became a part of the Medo-Persian empire. When Persia was conquered by Alexander the Great, the last shadow of Phœnicia's independence passed away. Since 65 B. C. the Phœnician territory has been a part of Syria. The religion of the Phœnicians was like that of all ancient Semitic religions — except that of the Hebrews — a kind of pantheistic worship of nature, their two principal deities being Baal and Astarte. See Rawlinson's History of Phœnicia.

Phœ′nix, the name of a mythical Egyptian bird, which is said to have burned itself, when a new phœnix arose out of its ashes.

Phœnix, Ariz., a city, the county-seat of Maricopa County and the capital of the territory; situated on the Santa Fé, Prescott and Phœnix and Maricopa and Phœnix railroads, in the south-central part of the territory. It was settled in 1870 and incorporated in 1881. It is in a mining region with good farm-land in the valleys, in which are extensive olive-groves, and controls a large trade in live-stock, grain, hay, honey, wines, oranges and other fruits. The chief industrial interests are the stockyards, machine-shops and jobbing houses. Among the public buildings are the capitol, agricultural experiment-station, insane asylum, court-house, city-hall, churches and schools. It is provided with good schools, both public and private. An Indian school here deserves special mention. It has more than 400 students, and, besides its regular course of instruction, has departments that teach manual training. Government is vested in a mayor, who holds office for two years, and a council. Population 11,134.

Phœnixville, Pa., a borough in Chester County, at the confluence of Schuylkill River and French Creek, 23 miles from Philadelphia. It manufactures silk, cotton goods, hosiery and matches, but of greatest importance is its iron industry. It contains rolling-mills, blast-furnaces, bridge-works and iron-mills, including one of the largest plants in the country. Phœnixville has good schools, a public library, a park and a hospital. The waterworks are owned and operated by the borough, and it has the service of two railroads. Population 10,743.

Phonet′ics, the science of the sounds of the human voice. Sound is produced by the expulsion of air from the lungs through the windpipe. When this air in its passage through the throat sets the vocal cords in vibration, voice is produced. After passing through the throat the voice enters the mouth or nose or both. As a practical science, phonetics comprehends not only a knowledge of the sounds uttered in human speech, but the invention or discovery of an alphabetical symbol to represent each. The sounds are of two kinds: Fixed sounds, where the cavities of the mouth remain unchanged during the passage of the air; and glides, where these cavities are constantly changing or, in other words, where the utterance is variously modified by the tongue, palate, lips and teeth. The former sounds are called vowels, and in English are represented by the letters, a, e, i, o, u, y; the latter sounds are called consonants, that is, with-sounders, as they are sounded with the vowels, but not alone. The great variations in spelling and pronouncing English have long been a source of perplexity to foreigners learning our language, and have caused many “phonetic reformers” to arise, with plans for producing uniformity; but none of these has ever been adopted, except in the case of a few words. Perhaps the reason of this is that, however “irregular” may be the spelling of so many words, yet the forms in which they are written have become as firmly fixed in our mental habit as are the sounds they represent and the ideas conveyed by those sounds; hence we can never consent to any changes, except those that are gradual and proceed as by a growth. Another difficulty in the phonetic reform would be that, even if it were possible to devise a fixed alphabetical symbol for every sound or combination of sounds, to which all good writers would conform, the pronunciation of words would at once begin to vary and in time our spelling and pronunciation might be as “irregular” as now.

Pho′nograph, an instrument invented by Edison in 1877 for recording and reproducing words spoken by the human voice. Leon Scott had already shown that, by speaking in front of a diaphragm, on the rear side of which was fixed a stylus, he could obtain a graphical record of the human voice on a cylinder rotating behind the diaphragm. The step which Edison made was to introduce a wax cylinder and a needlepoint attached to the diaphragm. On rotating the wax cylinder, the needle-point cuts a groove. If, while this groove is being cut, one “talks to the diaphragm” the indentations of the needle-point in the wax will vary with each pulsation of the voice. The axis of the cylinder is so provided with a screw that the groove takes the form of a spiral as the cylinder is rotated and translated while the stylus is fixed in one position. A record having been impressed upon the wax, it is only necessary to allow the stylus again to trace the groove in order to impress upon the diaphragm exactly — or nearly exactly — the same vibrations which originally produced the groove. In this way the phonograph is made to repeat whatever is said to it. A new phonographic principle was in 1900 invented by Poulsen, a Danish engineer. Poulsen uses the current in a telephone circuit to magnetize a strip of steel tape which is drawn continuously between the poles of an electromagnet, the electromagnet being energized by the telephone current. The record of anything spoken into the telephone is stored in the magnetization of the steel tape. Accordingly when the steel tape is again drawn between the poles of the electromagnet, the telephone in the circuit will, owing to currents induced by the steel tape, repeat whatever was originally spoken to it. Still a third phonographic principle was in 1901 devised by Nernst; but has not been perfected. It is based upon the electrolysis produced by an electric current.

Phonog′raphy. See Shorthand.

Phonom′eter is an instrument of Edison's invention for testing the force of the human voice in speaking. It consists chiefly of a mouthpiece and diaphragm, behind the latter of which is placed a delicate mechanism which operates a 15-inch fly-wheel by means of which a hole can be bored in an ordinary pine board.

PHONOPHORE

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Phonophore (fd'n$-for), is a device of Langdon Davies of London, England, for transmitting electric signals through circuits which are not closed. Messages have been sent over wires open at both ends, in circumstances which would render ordinary telegraphing impossible. The same wire has been used at once for ordinary telegraphing and for the transmission of phonophore signals. When, the resistance having been greatly increased, the ordinary signals ceased, those of the phonophore continued as distinct as before. The transmitter is fitted with a vibrating reed at one end and the receiver with a stretched steel band at the other, which can be tuned to the same note.

Phos'phates, salts formed from the phosphoric acids, are of great importance in plant and animal life. Phosphate of soda, in any of its three forms, may be dissolved in water, and is found in all the soft and fluid portions of the bodies of animals. Phosphates abound especially in the blood and tissues of carnivorous animals. They are necessary to the process by which cellular tissue is built up from the blood. Phosphate of lime is not only needed in the bodies of animals, but when properly pre-

fared it is a valuable manure for plants, n animals it forms four fifths of the enamel of the teeth and more than half the substance of the bones. Normal phosphate of lime or normal calcium phosphate is indeed insoluble; but in the fluids of the animal body it is held in solution as a loose compound with albumen etc. As calcium phosphate is necessary to a fertile soil, bone-dust and mineral phosphates of calcium are sold commercially as fertilizers. Bones have for many years been an important form of phosphate manure. They generally are first boiled or steamed. Bone-phosphates, being slow-acting fertilizers, should be used finely ground and as a permanent benefit to the soil rather than as direct plant-food. Phosphates associated with organic matter decompose more quickly than purely mineral phosphates do. They therefore are more readily available fertilizers. Great deposits of lime-phosphates are found in Alabama (q. v.)t Florida, South Carolina and Tennessee. See FERTILIZERS and PHOSPHORUS.

Phosphorescence (Jos'for-es'sens). When a body emits light because it has been raised to a high temperature, we describe the phenomenon by the name incandescence; but when a body emits light without being raised to a correspondingly high temperature, the process is called luminescence. A Eiece of sugar cut in the dark will emit a lint light; this is an example of luminescence. A solution of sulphate of quinine held in ultraviolet light will emit a faint blue light; this is another example of luminescence, which is generally known as fluorescence. The Germans call it photolumines-

cence, because it is an effect produced by light. Red ink, when made of eosin, behaves in the same way as quinine. But as soon as the illumination ceases, these bodies cease to give off their fluorescent light. There are other bodies, however, as sulphides of barium, calcium and strontium, which continue to exhibit fluorescence even after illumination has ceased. This phenomenon of persistent fluorescence is called phosphorescence. Becquerel has proved that most bodies exhibit phosphorescence, but only for a very short time after illumination. The student should carefully note that the glow exhibited by phosphorus in the dark is due to slow oxidation, and is not a case of phosphorescence at all. Properly classified, it is a case of chemical luminescence.

Phos'phoms, one of the nonmetallic elements. At ordinary temperatures it is an almost colorless or faintly yellow, solid substance, having the glistening appearance and consistency of wax. If it be heated to i4o°F. in the air, it catches fire and burns with a brilliant white flame. It is so inflammable as to burn by mere friction at ordinary temperatures. Even the warmth of the hand may set it to burning. In experiments care must be taken lest the hands be severely burned. It is kept in water lest it may spontaneously get on fire. It shines in the dark, from the slow combustion it undergoes. Taken internally, it is a powerful irritant poison. Persons engaged in the manufacture of matches are frequently seriously affected by its fumes. Scientists have overcome this danger to some extent by the discovery of red phosphorus, which is prepared from ordinary phosphorus by heating it in a closed iron vessel. Phosphorus is not found in an uncombined state in nature. It w*as first discovered by Brandt in 1669. Bones at present furnish a large part of the phosphorus of commerce. Bones are burned to whiteness and powdered, then mixed with sulphuric acid to decompose the phosphate of lime in the ash; the solution of the superphosphate is evaporated to a syrup, mixed with charcoal and distilled; then the phosphorus rises in vapor and is condensed. The mineral apatite is also used instead of bones. See PHOSPHATES.

Photius (fd'shl-us), ^ (A. D. 820-91), a patriarch at Constantinople, whose chief distinction is his influence in bringing about the separation between the Latin and the Greek church. The separation did not completely take place during his time, but its beginning did. Steps were taken under his leadership which could not be retraced. A council in 867 raised a controversy of doctrine and discipline between the churches of the east and west. The east withdrew from the west. Another council condemned the western church. Some time after this the separation was completed.

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Pho'to-Engrav'irig is a process for the conversion of a photograph into an engraving, from which engraving prints may be taken by any good printing-press. Such perfection has been reached that photoengravings have largely replaced wood-engravings for illustrating books and newspapers. One of the best, if not most of the processes in use to-day, will be found based upon discoveries in the early part of the 19th century that asphaltum, when it has been subjected to the action of light, is no longer soluble in its ordinary solvents. A plate therefore coated with asphaltum which has been exposed in the camera obscura to light and shade would possess a surface, part of which was soluble and part insoluble. By the application of biting acids, these plates are then chemically etched. This process is especially useful to reproduce line-engravings or the pen-and-ink sketches used so freely in the daily papers which are now rapidly produced by chemical processes. Many of the variations in the ordinary process are kept secret, and others could hardly be explained to any other than an expert.

Photography. The art of making pictures by the direct action of light on a sensitive surface dates from the beginning of the i Qth century. The action of light on certain salts of silver was studied by Scheele, a Swedish chemist, in 1777, who laid the foundation for the work which followed. He found that certain of the salts were blackened by exposure to light, the effect being due largely to the blue and violet rays in the spectrum. It was an easy step to coat paper with this sensitive substance and obtain impressions of leaves, ferns and similar objects by the action of sunlight; but no way was known of rendering the pictures permanent and they attracted no great amount of attention. In 1839 a Frenchman named Daguerre succeeded in producing a sensitive surface on a copper plate which was so rapidly affected by light that impressions could be made on it in the camera, which impressions could be made permanent. The process at once met with great favor, and, owing to its comparative cheapness, almost immediately supplanted miniature painting, which was then in vogue. The disadvantages of Daguerre's process were manifold. Very long exposures were required, a sitting was required for each picture, and the picture had to be held in a certain light to be seen.

The next step was the invention of the collodion plate, which shortened the time of exposure, and furnished the means of producing any number of pictures from a single plate. It was necessary to use these plates in a wet condition, however, and their employment was consequently limited to the studio. The discovery of the dry plate, which is in use at the present time, was

made about a quarter of a century ago and was the means of bringing the art within the reach of everybody. Before the days of dry plates the photographer was obliged to carry about with him a portable dark room, for the plates had to be immersed in a bath of silver nitrate immediately before exposure, and the development could not be postponed a moment after exposure.

The present dry-plate process is essentially as follows: Glass plates are coated with a film of gelatine containing a mixture of bromide and iodide of silver. After exposure in the camera they are developed by means of suitable chemicals in a room illuminated only with red light. The action of the light on the plate is to start a reaction in the silver salt which requires the action of the developer to complete it. This reaction is the transformation of the white bromide of silver into black metallic silver. The plate after development consequently appears black wherever the light has acted, on it, the resulting picture being called a negative, since the high lights are black and the deep shadows white. After development the plate is transferred to a bath of hyposulphite of soda, which dissolves the unaffected silver-salts leaving the gelatine quite transparent except foi the black deposit which forms the picture. From this negative any number of pictures can be printed by exposing sheets of sensitized paper under it to the action of sunlight. The black deposit of silver in the film screens the paper from the blackening action of the light; consequently the resulting print is white in those places which, in the negative, are dark, and the picture is a positive. Modern plates are made so sensitive that it is possible to secure pictures of objects in sunlight in the 1-1,000 part of a second. The plates of Daguerre required an exposure of from five to 15 minutes.

Since the introduction of these extremely sensitive plates photography has proved of the greatest aid in scientific investigations. In astronomy clusters ot stars and nebulae have been photographed, which no eye can see, even in the most powerful telescopes, for the photographic plate can be exposed for hours to the image, the action of the feeble light accumulating in the sensitive film, whereas in the eye, if the light is too feeble at once to affect the retina, prolonged gazing is wholly without effect.

By employing the light of the electric spark, rapidly moving objects can be photographed, in as brief an interval as the millionth part of a second. In this way beautiful pictures of flying rifle-balls, witn the ripples and waves of air which accompany them and the boiling wake which follows them, have been secured by Professor Boys of London. Professor Wood of the University of Wisconsin had in a similar manner secured pictures of sound-waves

The Yellow Plate

The Red Plate

The Blue PUte

Combination of the Yellow, Red and Blue,

SHOWING THE NECESSARY TO OBTAIN A PICTURE IN COLORS

FROM A'SINGLE NEGATIVE.

\ ,'llmN and Kni Combined.

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in air, the image of the spherical wave of condensed air being impressed on the photographic plate by the light of an electric spark occurring at just the right moment. By means of cameras fitted with electric lights, which have been lowered into the sea, pictures of the ocean's bottom, with the sea-plants and coral formations, have been taken. Swung from the tails of kites, cameras, operated by an electric current sent up the wire kite-string, give us pictures of our surroundings as they appear from an elevation of a mile or two.

Book and magazine illustration is now done largely by photography, the old-fashioned woodcut having been driven out by the zinc plate, which is engraved or etched by a photographic process, giving an absolute fac-simile of the original drawing. One of the most remarkable developments within the last ten years has been the production of plates which are sensitive to all the colors of the spectrum. The ordinary commercial plates are sensitive only to the blue and violet parts of the spectrum, consequently red or yellow objects always come out black in the finished picture. Vogel of Berlin discovered, however, that if the plates were slightly stained with some aniline dye capable of absorbing the red and yellow light, they at once became sensitive to these colors; consequently such plates could be used for photographing colored objects, where it was ssential that correct color-values should be rendered. Plates are now made which will blacken in the light of the ordinary dark-room's red lamp almost as quickly as ordinary plates in candle light. Such plates are called arthochromatic plates, and they are used for photographing paintings and other colored objects as well as in many of the processes of color photography. Great improvements have been made also in photographic lenses within the past quarter of a century, the firm of Zeiss in Jena having been most active in the development of the modern photographic objective.

It is impossible to predict what the f- ture has in store for photography. Still more sensitive plates would be of immense use, particularly in scientific photography, and it is not by any means impossible that some new discovery may at any time give us a plate ten times as rapid as the present one. What is most desired, however, is some satisfactory color-process, which can hardly be expected until some one is fortunate to discover that unknown chemical which has the property of assuming a color similar in hue to the color of the light which illuminates it, and retaining that color permanently, a discovery of which there is no immediate promise.

CQLOR PHOTOGRAPH? At the very beginning of the art of photography it was observed that traces of

color sometimes appeared in the picture which bore some resemblance to the color of the light acting on the plate. Photographs of the solar spectrum were obtained in this way at the beginning of the last century, in which the colors were reproduced with more or less fidelity, but no method was discovered of rendering the colors permanent, and it is only within the last few years that satisfactory methods have been devised of producing colored pictures by the aid of photography. The methods in use at the present time may be divided into two classes: The direct, in which the color is produced by the action of the light, and the indirect, in which the color is applied subsequent to the taking of the picture, the photographic process being modified so as to cause the colors to distribute themselves properly in the finished picture.

The only successful process of the first class is that of Lippmann, the French physicist, whose method was carefully worked out by theory before a single experiment was tried. Lippmann's process essentially is as follows: A photographic plate is placed in a holder with the glass-side toward the lens of the camera, and mercury is poured into the back of the holder, forming a metallic mirror in contact with the sensitive surface of the plate. The light after passing through the film is reflected back through the film in the opposite direction by the quicksilver mirror. A very remarkable thing now takes place. The reflected light-waves from the mirror interfere with the oncoming waves, producing what are known as stationary waves in the sensitive film. Now, while ordinary lightwaves deposit the silver in the film in a solid mass, the stationary waves have the singular power of depositing it in exceedingly thin laminae of films, each one thinner than the thinnest gold leaf. The thickness of the silver laminae varies with the color of the light producing them, red light or long waves producing thicker films than blue light or short waves. Thin films, we know, show brilliant colors by reflected light, the commonest example being the soap-bubble, and the silver laminae in Lippmann's pictures show color in exactly the same way. The color of any part of the bubble depends on the thickness of the soap-film, and in the same way the color of any portion of the photograph depends on the thickness of the silver-films deposited by the light-waves in that place. The curious thing about the process is that light of any given color will deposit films of just the right thickness to showfehe same color by reflected light after the plate is developed and fixed in the usual manner. What is still more remarkable is that this fact was recognized by the inventor of the process before any of his experimental work was done. The production of pictures

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by this method has thus far been confined to the laboratory, the conditions for success not yet being quite fully understood. Probably not more than half a dozen people in the world have succeeded in getting satisfactory results, owing to the experimental difficulties.

Of the indirect processes there are a number which have been developed far enough to be considered commercial successes. These processes are all based on the principle that any color can be imitated by a mixture of the three primary colors, red, green and blue. The most beautiful results have been obtained by Mr. Ives of Philadelphia, one of the pioneers in ^ this line of work, whose process consists, briefly, in taking three negatives of the subject through red, green and blue glasses. These glasses prevent light of any other color than that which they are designed to transmit from getting at the plate; consequently each negative is a record of the distribution of one of the three primary colors in the original. From these negatives three transparencies on glass are printed, which, when thrown superimposed on a screen by means of three lanterns furnished with colored glasses similar to the ones used in taking the pictures, combine to form a very perfect reproduction of the original.

For exhibiting the pictures without the lanterns Mr, Ives has devised an instrument which he has named the kromskop, in which the colored images are combined by reflectors. The pictures are stereoscopic as well, and the result is a reproduction so perfect that .it is almost impossible to believe that we are not looking at the object itself, for it stands out in full perspective with every color perfect.

Another process, which was perfected independently and almost simultaneously by Dr. Joly of Edinburgh and Mr. Mc-Donough of Chicago has been recently put upon a commercial basis. In this process the negative is taken on a plate in front of which is placed a screen ruled with very fine lines in red, green and blue ink, the colors following each other in succession across the screen. This screen breaks up the picture into linear strips, any one of which may be regarded as a record of one of the three primary colors along that portion of the picture. From the negative obtained in this way a positive is printed on glass, which, when mounted in contact with a similar tricolor ruled screen, reproduces the colors of the original. The objection to this method is the obtrusiveness of the lines, especially when the pictures are projected. The colors are much weaker and less faithfully reproduced than by the kromskop method.

Another method, devised originally by Prof. N. W. Wood and recently improved and perfected by Mr. Ives and his son, em-

ploys the diffraction grating as the source of color in the picture. The pictures can be duplicated by a purely mechanical process, but are colorless except, when examined with a special viewing apparatus. Results have been obtained by this method very nearly if not quite equal to those yielded by the kromskop. The most recent process, and the only one which appears to have been a commercial success, is the recently devised starch-grain process invented by the Lumiere brothers of Lyons. It is a modification of the Joly process, the colored lines being replaced by stained granules of potato-starch. The plates are not very difficult to operate, and the results are highly satisfactory, though by no means equalling those yielded by the kromskop method. R. W. WOOD.

Pho'tograv'ure. The expense of photogravure work greatly limits its use mostly to high-class bookwork. Large pictures, however, are produced by it which rival the finest steel engraving in finish and delicacy. The photographs can be reproduced, but the process is largely employed for obtaining engravings, such as copies of celebrated pictures. The process is so nearly perfect that any touch of the painter's brush is clearly seen in the copy. We here give one of the methods. (See PHOTOGRAPHY for sensitized plates, negative etc.) A gelatine relief is obtained by exposing bichromated gelatine to the action of 1'ght beneath a negative. The gelatine is mixed with a quantity of black lead in more or less granular form. This causes the relief to have a surface which is granular in character, and also makes it a conducting one for electricity. Put now into an electrotype bath; it will soon be covered with a deposit of copper. A copper printing-plate is thus made, from which pictures are printed.

Pho'tophone, a curious instrument invented by Graham Bell in 1880. It is based upon the fact, discovered by J. E. May hew in 1873, that the resistance of annealed selenium is less in sunlight than in the dark. Using a piece of thin, silvered glass on a diaphragm, Bell was able, by means of the human voice, so to deflect a pencil of snnlight that, with each pulsation of the voice, a distant piece of selenium was alternately illuminated and left in the dark, This piece of selenium was in the circuit of a telephone receiver and a battery. At each illumination a sudden increase of current passed through the receiver, because the resistance of the selenium was diminished. One with his ear at the receiver,, therefore, heard every pulsation of the voice that deflected the sunbeam upon the selenium. Such an instrument he called a photophone.

Photosyntax (fo'td-stn'taks), a term formerly used for photosynthesis. Photosynthesis (fō′tō̇-sĭn′thē̇-sĭs), the process by which green plants make sugar, starch and similar food. The materials for this are carbon dioxide and water. The former is obtained chiefly (if not exclusively) by the leaves and twigs from the air, where it constitutes three parts in 10,000. It passes through the stomata by diffusion, dissolves in the water, saturating the cell-walls, and so enters the cells. The organs by which the food is made are the minute, green bodies called chloroplasts or chlorophyll bodies, which give the plant its color. They are composed of protoplasm, which holds a green dye, chlorophyll, and are imbedded in the colorless protoplasm of those cells which lie near the surface of a plant. The chlorophyll absorbs some of the light, especially the red and yellow parts, and this energy is used (how is unknown) in the process of food-making. Even twilight (not moonlight) suffices for some photosynthesis; the amount of food made is proportional, other things being equal, to the brightness of the light. The details of the process are not known. Usually a sugar appears as the end product; this increases to a certain amount in the water of the cell; some of it is turned into starch, minute granules being formed in the chloroplasts. The food is constantly being carried away to places of use or storage. In daylight food is usually produced more rapidly than it can be disposed of; but, as photosynthesis ceases at night, the surplus is then removed. See Aëration, Chlorophyll and Stomata.

Phototaxis (fō-tō-tăks′ĭs) (in plants), the sensitiveness of an organism, free to move about, to unequal illumination (see Irritability), to which it responds by taking up a definite attitude with respect to the direction from which the brighter light acts. Only water-plants are free to respond. Diatoms, desmids, some filamentous algæ and zoöspores of algas and fungi show these reactions. Algal zoöspores swim toward light, and fungous zoöspores swim away from it.

Phrenol′ogy In popular language phrenology may be defined as the theory of mental philosophy based on the size or the relative size of the different parts of the brain. It claims that we can localize the different parts of the brain which gives rise to different mental functions. Phrenologists make a map of the cranium, on one division writing self-esteem; on another, wit; and so on. Examining your head, the phrenologist will put his finger on one point and say: “This man has a large development of self-esteem.” Moving his hand to another bump: “This man is lacking in veneration;” or “He has a great power of language;” or “He has to try hard to give exact statements;” and so on. The cultivated phrenologist thus goes through all the divisions of mental and moral qualities, finding a local boundary in the brain for each. In Britain, Gall, Spurzheim and George and Andrew Combe may be mentioned as representative phrenologists. In America the more noted ones are Dr. Charles Caldwell, the Fowler brothers and Wells.

Phryg′ia, an ancient country of Asia Minor, whose boundaries varied at different periods. It is supposed that at one time Phrygia included most of the peninsula. In general it is a high plateau which afforded pasturage for flocks. Gold was found in the mountains and streams. Vines were cultivated in some districts, and Phrygian marble was greatly prized. Phrygia was conquered by Crœsus in the 6th century and by the Persians in 549. The influence of the Phrygian religion is traced in Greek mythology.

Phycomycetes (fi′kō̇-mī̇-sē′tēz), plants forming one of the great groups of fungi, which is distinguished by being more like the algæ in structure and reproductive habits than any of the fungus groups. The
Mould, showing mycelium (m), young sporangia (g), and fertilized egg (z). name means alga-like fungi. The mycelium is composed of cœnocytic threads or hyphæ, that is, filaments which contain no partitions. (See Cœnocyte). It seems to be more than probable that the group has been derived from the green algæ. Prominent members of the group are Saprolegnia forms known as water-moulds because they live upon the dead bodies of water-plants

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and animals, sometimes attacking living fish, one species being very destructive to fish in hatcheries. It is interesting to note that this group of fungi has retained the aquatic habit of the algse. As a consequence, its asexual spores are ciliated and have the power of swimming. Another feature of the water-moulds is that the oOgonium sometimes forms several eggs and that frequently the eggs form new plants without any fertilization, being an illustration of the habit called parthenogenesis (which see). The mucor forms are well-represented by the black moulds, which form white, furry growths on damp bread, manure-heaps etc. From the prostrate mycelium arise numerous erect branches, each bearing at its summit a globular sporangium containing numerous asexual spores. The mucors are isogamous (which see). The peronospora forms are the downy mildews which are common internal parasites on seed-plants, one of the most common kinds attacking grape leaves. The presence of the parasite is made known by discolored and finally deadened spots on the leaves where the tissues have been killed. The spore-bearing branches rise above the surface of the leaf, and, many of them arising near together, form little velvety patches suggesting the name downy mildew. These forms are heterogamous. See HETEROGAMY.

Phyl'loclad (in plants). See CLADOPHYLL.

Phyllodia (fl-lo1'd/i-a}, (in plants), petioles which resemble leaves in form and function. The most conspicuous display of phyllodia is among the acacias, especially hose of Australia. The normal leaves are pinnately compound, but for the most part they do not develop, the petiole becoming flat and doing the leaf work.

Phyllotaxy (ftl'M-t&ks'y). The name literally means leaf-arrangement, and has to do with the distribution of leaves upon the stem and the laws which govern it. In general, there are two types of leaf arrangement : that in which the two or more leaves are developed at the same node, giving rise to what is called the yerticillate or cyclic arrangement; and that in which but a single leaf occurs at each node, giving rise to the alternate or spiral arrangement. In the case of the spiral arrangement some relations have been discovered which seem to be more curious than important. In the simplest cases the leaves occur in two vertical rows, the angular divergence between any two successive leaves being half of the circumference of the stem or 180°. This type of phyllotaxy is designated by the fraction J, which shows the angular divergence, while the denominator indicates the number of vertical ranks. In the next higher series the leaves occur in three rows, the angular divergence between successive leaves being one third the circumference or 120°. The fraction f designates this arrangement.

The next higher arrangement is the one in which there are five vertical rows, but, in order to reach a leaf standing directly over the one started from, a spiral is traced twice around the stem. The angular divergence between two successive leaves, therefore, is two fifths of the circumference or 144°, and this arrangement is designated by the fraction |. It has been found that any fraction may be derived by adding the numerators and denominators of the two preceding fractions. For example, the next higher arrangement would be f, which means that the angular divergence is three eighths the circumference of the stem, that is, eight leaves are passed before one is reached standing directly over the one started from, and in finding the eighth leaf a spiral has been traced three times around the stem. Such high orders of arrangement, as 5-13, 8-21 etc. are displayed in pine cones.

Phyllox'era. See GRAPE-PHYLLOXERA.

Phys'ical Ed'ucation in some schools and colleges includes the physical examination of pupils and students; their personal guidance in matters relating to health; the class instruction given in hygiene; and the teaching and supervision of muscular exercise involved in gymnastics and athletics. Physical education refers more technically to the employment of large forms of muscular movement in the education of the young for the development of organic power and efficiency and for the attainment of mental and moral qualities which depend upon muscular activities and habits. As modern life becomes more sedentary and specialized, particularly for those who live in cities, the importance of physical education increases. As the scope of modern education broadens and as educational methods become more adequate in preparing pupils for practical living, the need of physical education is more clearly recognized. This term refers in theory to the plan and benefits of muscular or motor activities in general in the education of the young and is concerned with the physiology and psychology of muscular exercise where-ever it occurs. Practically, however, physical education is directly responsible for the fundamental movments of the body not required otherwise nor sufficiently by the school or by life outside of school.

In the development of modern education it is domestic science, manual training and school excursions that have to some extent supplied the need for large neuromuscular movements; but these are by no means sufficient for all the needs of the developing child, and they are not intended or adapted primarily for general organic training. Under more primitive conditions of life in the past grown people and children maintained health and became strong, courageous and self-reliant by varied work and

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vigorous play mostly out-of-doors. Not only muscular but mental and moral qualities of vital worth were developed by strenuous and varied action which the conditions of life made possible and necessary. While people to-day are not required to devote as much time or strength to hard manual labor as formerly, still strong, well-trained muscles, nerves and nerve-centers which work with the muscles and are developed by them are as essential now to healthful, successful living as they were. Normal development in children does not occur without the opportunity for and incentive to a variety of activities similar in principle to those which produced health and power in former generations.

It is within the scope of physical education, then, to indicate the kind and amount of motor-activity desirable for different ages and sexes and to provide in play, games, dancing, athletics and gymnastics the activities necessary to the best development of th© young and for the preservation of health and organic efficiency in adult life. It also is within the responsibility of physical education to know the biologic condition of the individual and to provide as far as is possible for the care and training made desirable by personal limitations. This personal care and training may include attention to special sense-organs, — teeth, throat and other parts of the body which may need treatment as well as corrective gymnastics for tendencies to weakness and deformity. The improved physical education of the future will provide for the logical correlation of large motor-activities with subjects and interests of the young in school and outside wherever such correlations are practicable. The material of the new physical education will be largely composed of play, dancing and games. The formal, set gymnastics which have been devised to counteract the unhygienic tendencies of modern life lack in essential educational values. They are formal, more or less artificial and lack the interest and spontaneity characteristic of more natural and satisfying forms of action. Formal gymnastics will be used as adjuncts to more spontaneous exercises, but they will be modified and reconstructed to meet the demands of modern physiology and pedagogy, and will occupy a relatively smaller space in the educational program of the future. Elements for play, dancing, and games will be supplied by historical material, folk-lore and modern adaptations of large movements which conditions may render desirable and possible.

The needs of the individual should always provide the first test of the fitness and value of these fundamental motor activities. Participation in class or group activities should not conflict with the interests of the individual pupil. Outdoor exercise is always more desirable than that which is taken in

a building. But in inclement weather suitable exercise in the gymnasium often is indispensable.

The kindergarten program should provide many large bodily movements through simple games, dramatic representations and dances. The finer activities of eye and finger should be carefully limited for young children. In the first and second elementary grades the larger exercises of the kindergarten may be continued with gradually increasing complexity. At this age apparatus for the easier climbing and swinging movements may be used; children of seven and eight may advantageously be given simple marching and drill formations. In the tliird and fourth grades dramatic representations are less suitable, games of skill are advantageous, marching and dancing are to be continued, squad formations and gymnastic drills with and without simple apparatus are in place. In the grammar grades there should be a continuation of the former exercises with a gradual increase in the difficulty and complexity of movement. Games and exercises requiring skill should have prominent place, and in the upper grammar grades group-games become more appropriate.

Through the period of rapid growth in early adolescence boys and girls should have abundant exercise in and out of doors, but as growth is often irregular and endurance very limited, much care should be taken in individual cases to prevent excessive strain and fatigue. At the beginning of rapid growth of girls, just preceding adolescence, boys and girls should be instructed in separate classes in physical training (excepting the simple exercises given in the class-room), and a definite differentiation should be made in the exercises for the two sexes in the gymnasium and on the playground.

The conscious interest of the pupil should always be engaged as fully as possible, and, before the high school at least, this interest should be related to the external purpose or advantage of the exercise rather than to the beneficial effect upon the body.

THOMAS D. WOOD,

Physical Sci'ence, a term used in contrast with natural science to denote all those sciences which deal especially with inanimate matter. This distinction between natural and physical sciences, which was explicitly suggested by Maxwell, would reserve natural science for the subjects considered under the heads of zoology, botany, paleontology, physiology, anatomy, psychology, anthropology and ethnology, all of which deal with life in some of its aspects; while among the physical sciences would be included physics, chemistry, mineralogy, geology and astronomy, etc. This classification would make biology the fundamental science of the natural group and physics the foundation of the physical group. Physical science

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may be defined, therefore, as that branch of learning which deals especially with energy and with inanimate matter.

It should be borne in mind by the student that physical and natural originally meant the same thing, the only difference being that the former is of Greek origin, while the latter comes from the Latin Accordingly, we still find a great diversity of usage. Lord Kelvin spoke of a certain physicist as a "distinguished naturalist.'* The distinction suggested by Maxwell is, however, being rapidly adopted.

The unprecedented growth of physical science during the iQth century had the effect of enormously subdividing the subject. Astronomy, which, in fact, is the simplest branch of physics, requires a peculiar set of instruments for its pursuit, and, therefore, is no longer studied under the head of physics. The same is true of chemistry, which is the physics of the molecule: it has become a large subject requiring a special equipment, and is a science separate from physics. Such, however, was not the case when Robert Boyle studied physics and chemistry. In like manner geology is the physics of the earth's crust; but it must be studied afield as well as in a special laboratory, and, hence, is a separate and very important science. Mineralogy also deals with the physics of a special group of bodies. But these bodies are so vast in number and so enormously important in commerce that they must be studied elaborately and carefully under a special head and with a special equipment.

Turning now from the pure physical sciences to the applied physical sciences, we find them grouped under the general head of engineering, which in turn has already been extensively subdivided. It is the rapid advance in physical science which has made possible the vast improvements in modern civilization, somewhat in the same manner that the rapid advances in natural science have made possible a more powerful and beneficent science of medicine and have introduced into modern thought the controlling principle of evolution.

Physics (fiz'tks), in its broad sense, is that science which deals with the properties of matter and of energy. In its narrow sense physics is defined in such a way as to exclude those properties of matter which depend upon its composition (referring them to chemistry), and those properties ot matter which are exhibited only in living beings (referring them to biology). For many years, however, there has ceased to be any sharp distinction between physics and chemistry. Witness the new sciences of physical chemistry and electrochemistry. Popularly defined, physics is made up of the sciences of mechanics, heat, light, sound, electricity and magnetism. A sounder view is that which regards physics as the appli-

cation of dynamics to the phenomena of sound, heat, light, electricity and magnetism. See ACOUSTICS, DYNAMICS, ELASTICITY, ELECTRICITY, HEAT, LIGHT and MAGNETISM. Phys'iog'raphy.

SCOPE OF THE SUBJECT

This term has but recently come into use, and its meaning is not yet clearly and uniformly defined. In England physiography is regarded as the introduction to physical science in general. It is made to include the elements of physics, chemistry, astronomy, physical geography, geology and, sometimes, even certain phases of botany and zoology. In America the term has a somewhat different meaning. It is sometimes used as a synonym for physical geography, but sometimes it is defined as the science which describes and explains the physical features of the earth's surface. In this sense it is the correlative of meteorol®gy, which treats of the atmosphere, and of oceanography, which treats of the oceans. According to early usage physical geography meant a description of the earth's physical features; but physiography does n©t content itself with a mere descripti©n of physical features. It attempts also to explain how existing physical features originated. This indeed is the fundamental distinction between physiography, as the term is commonly used in America, and that part of physical geography which deals with the physical features of the earth's surface, in its attempt to explain the origin of the present features of the earth's surface physiography necessarily draws, to some extent, on the past history of the earth; that is, ©n geology. Between physiography and ge®logy, therefore, there is no sharp line of division. The present features of the earth are the surface expression of the geological pr@cesses which have operated in the past. The relation of physiography to geology may be likened te the relation of political geography to history. Political geography is an expression, in one form, of history. The political geography of all stages of history would, from one point of view, be a summary of history. Similarly, if the physiography of each stage of the earth's history were known, this knowledge would, from one point of view, give us the complete history of the earth.

The atmosphere is as much a part of the earth as are the rocks. The study of the atmosphere is meteorology, but physiog-raph}% even in its narrowest meaning, includes the consideration of the atmospheric forces and processes which have shaped or helped to shape the present surface of the land. This includes the movements of the air (winds), the moisture of the air, especially precipitation, the changes of temperature and the chemical changes effected, directly or indirectly, through the influence of the atmosphere. While meteorology in

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eludes the study of atmospheric movements as such, physiography, in its narrower sense, includes only the effects of those movements on that part of the earth which lies below the atmosphere. The ocean, likewise, is a part of the earth. The science which deals with the ocean as such is oceanography; but the consideration of the ocean as a part of the earth falls within the province of geology, while a consideration of the effects of oceanic activities which modify the surface of the solid part of the earth falls within the scope of physiography. Thus the effects of rivers, waves, currents etc. on the configuration of the solid part of the earth fall within the province of physiography. Physiography, therefore, concerns itself primarily with the topographic results of geologic processes. It is a special phase of geology. Since the geological processes which have left pronounced topographic results are the processes of late geological time, physiography has to do with but a brief part of the earth's history.

PHYSIOGRAPHIC PROCESSES Powell long ago grouped all processes that work on the earth's surface into three classes: The processes of diastrophism; the processes of vulcanism; and the processes of gradation. Diastrophism includes the up-and-down movements of the earth's crust, movements which, however gentle and slow, are continually in progress. Vulcanism includes all processes connected with volcanoes. Gradation includes all processes by which material is shifted from one point on the earth's surface to another. The centers of diastrophic and volcanic activity are beneath the surface. The processes of gradation are in operation on the surface, chiefly at the plane of contact between atmosphere and land and between water and the solid part of the earth beneath it. The transfer of material in gradation is usually from higher to lower levels. Thus rivers carry debris from land to sea. They degrade the land, and the material, deposited in the sea, aggrades its bottom. Glaciers likewise carry material from higher to lower levels. They degrade the places where they gather debris, and aggrade the places where they leave it. The degradation of one place generally involves the aggradation of another. The sand and dust blown by the wind constitute a partial exception to the rule that the materials shifted about on the earth's surface are transferred from higher to lower levels.

LAND AND WATER AREAS The greatest features of the earth's crust are the elevations known as continents, in contrast with the depressions known as ocean basins. The sharp, topographic division-line between continents and ocean-basins does not correspond with the borders of the continental land-areas. For a distance about

the continental lands the water is very shallow. There is then a sudden descent of the bottom to much greater depths. The area beneath the shallow water is the continental shelf. Its outer border usually is about 100 fathoms below the level of the sea. From the physiographic point of view the outer edge of the continental shelf is the border of the continent. While the explanation of the existence of continents and ocean basins is a problem of physiography, it is an unsolved problem. No assertion can be made at the present time as to how these greatest of physical features originated. The continents have sometimes been looked on as uplifted portions of the earth's crust; but it would perhaps be quite as near the truth to consider the ocean-basins as depressed portions. It, however, is far from certain that the surface of the solid part of the earth was ever regular. If the continents were lifted or if they were left up as the result of the sinking of the ocean-basins, they are the result of diastrophism. If this was not their origin, they probably came into existence when the earth was in process of formation, whatever that process was. Smaller land-masses, that is, islands, have originated in various ways. Some are diastrophic, some are gradational (aggrada-tional), and many are volcanic.

Physiography has to do both with the horizontal and the vertical configuration of land-areas and sea. The horizontal configuration of the one is the counterpart of the horizontal configuration of the other; but the vertical configuration of the one stands in no necessary relation to that of the other.

THE HORIZONTAL CONFIGURATION OP LAND

AREAS

It is the province of physiography to define, classify and explain the origin of all sorts of horizontal irregularities of land-areas. Among the horizontal irregularities of the land are peninsulas, capes etc.— land-masses projecting into the sea. Among the horizontal irregularities of the ocean are gulfs, bays etc. — or bodies of water projecting intc the land. The sizes, positions arid shapes of these irregularities are readily expressed on maps. Not so their origin. They have, indeed, originated in many different ways. For example, the uplift of an area of sea-bottom along a line at right angles to the coast of a continent, would give rise to a peninsula, like Florida. The uplift of two such peninsulas near each other might leave a gulf or bay between them. Again, the sinking of a coast allows the sea to invade the lower ends of the river-valleys, forming bays, as Delaware and Chesapeake Bays. When the sea converts the lower ends of adjacent valleys into bays, it leaves a peninsula between. Peninsulas and bays formed in this way are the results of diastrophism. Small peninsulas or capes, like Cape May,

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may be built by deposits of sand and gravel made by waves and shore-currents. They are the result of gradation, in this case of aggradation. Glaciers moving down valleys to the sea, as in high latitudes, may gouge out the lower ends of the valleys through which they pass, cutting them down far below sea-level. When the ice melts, deep, narrow bays or fiords, like those of Greenland, Norway or Alaska, are the result. Such bays are a result of gradation; in this case, of degradation. Volcanic activity on a coast-line may result in extending the land, — making a cape, or in destroying land which previously existed, — leaving a bay. Thus horizontal irregularities 'may arise by vulcanism as well as by diastrophism and gradation. Horizontal irregularities arise in many ways not here enumerated, especially by various processes of gradation; but the foregoing illustrations will suffice to show that horizontal irregularities may result from any one of the three sets of processes referred to above. The horizontal configuration of a land-area may be altered by animal or plant life, as when coral-reefs are constructed or mangrove-trees invade the water, extending the land. These may be looked on as special cases of aggradation.

RELIEF FEATURES OF THE FIRST ORDER

Physiography has also to do with the vertical configuration of the la,nd. The great relief types are three: Plains, plateaus and mountains.

Plains are relatively low areas of considerable extent, with surfaces which are not notably rough. Plateaus are similar tracts of greater altitude, which stand up more or less prominently above their surroundings on one or more sides. Mountains usually have less areal extent, and stand up more conspicuously above their surroundings. They generally have somewhat narrow summits and steep slopes.

As topographic features, plateaus and plains may be said to differ from one another chiefly in elevation; yet there is no specific elevation above which land may not rise and yet remain a plain. Formerly, plains were often denned as lands below 1,000 feet in elevation; but this arbitrary definition has no warrant in nature or in usage. The fact is that .plains often grade into plateaus and that there is no sharp line of demarkation or basis of separation which is uniformly applicable. An extensive tract of land, 500 feet above the sea, would probably be called a plain if it were surrounded or nearly surrounded by higher land, or if it were bordered by notably high land on one side and descended gradually to much lower levels on others. On the other hand, a tract of land 500 feet above the sea would probably be called a plateau if it were bordered on one or more sides by a tract of considerable extent,

which had an elevation of but 100 or 200 feet, particularly if the descent to the lower level were abrupt. Extensive areas 1,000 feet or even considerably more above the sea would probably be called plains rather than plateaus, if they were surrounded or largely surrounded by higher lands, while they would be called plateaus if they stood up distinctly above their surroundings. Thus parts of the plains of the Mississippi basin are higher than parts of the Piedmont plateau lying east of the Appalachian Mountains. It is, therefore, a question of surroundings and relations, rather than actual elevation above the sea, which determines whether a tract shall be called a plain or a plateau.

A plateau may be bordered by slopes which descend abruptly on all sides or by slopes which descend gently on all sides; or a plateau may descend abruptly or gently on one side and be bordered by a higher plateau or by a mountain range on another. In the latter case the rise to the higher slopes may be abrupt or gentle. If abrupt, the separation of plateau and mountain is distinct; if gentle, the one grades into the other. If a high plateau become narrow and long, and if it descend in all directions or on both sides, it may approach a mountain range in form.

Mountains are not more sharply defined than ^plains and plateaus. The term mountain implies notable elevation, but a mountain is not necessarily higher than a plateau. Thus the plateau of Tibet is much higher than any part of the Appalachian mountain system. The term mountain implies (i) a considerable elevation above surroundings and (2) crests of limited area. An isolated elevation 1,000 feet above its surroundings, rising abruptly above a low flat plain, would doubtless be called a mountain, though an elevation of the same height, with gentler slopes, on a rolling plateau might not be.

It is the task of physiography to describe the forms and relations of plains, plateaus and mountains, to explain how they came into existence and how they came to assume the forms which they now have. Some plains originated by diastrophism, as by the elevation of shallow sea-bottom enough to convert it into land; others are the result of aggradation, the building up of sea-bottom slightly above the level of the sea; others are the result of the degradation of mountains and plateaus; and still others owe their origin to the combined action of diastrophic and gradational forces. Subsequent to the origin of plains, their surfaces have been modified by rain, rivers, winds, glaciers etc. It is the task of physiography to determine the nature and the extent of the changes which these several agencies have effected. Plateaus are the result of diastrophism or of vulcanism or of both. They are plains elevated to the condition

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PHYSIOGRAPHY

of plateaus; or, less commonly, they are built up by lava-flows. After they come into existence, plateaus are subject to the same changes as plains. Mountains have originated in various ways: by diastrophism, as in the case of mountains formed by the upfolding of the superficial strata of the earth's crust or by the up-thrust of blocks of the earth's crust; by volcanoes, as in the case of volcanic peaks; and by gradation. The origin of mountains by gradation will be referred to later Like plains and plateaus mountains are modified by wind and water and air after they are formed. Physiography essays to explain how they originated and how far their present forms are the result of original uplift or upbuilding and how far the result of subsequent gradation.

MINOR RELIEF FEATURES The great relief forms — plains, plateaus and mountains — are affected by numerous smaller relief features. Thus, a plain or a plateau may be affected by depressions (valleys) cut out by streams. Between the valleys remain elevations. If the elevations be long and narrow, they are ridges; if short, hills. The valleys are made; the ridges and hills are left. As a result of the excavation of valleys, plains may be far from flat. Generally speaking, the valleys are deep in proportion as the land is high. The valleys of plateaus, on the whole, are deeper than those of plains, and the ridges and hills between them are therefore higher. If the ridges or hills be very high, they may be called mountains. For example, the Catskills are simply the big hills left in the erosion of the plateau which once existed where the mountains now are. The depressions between the mountainous hills have been worn out by running water. It is thus that mountains originate as the result of gradational processes operating on plateaus. Special names are given to special forms of hills or mountains, developed by erosion. Here belong buttes, large, flat-topped, high hills developed by erosion in arid regions; mesas, which are more extensive remnants of plateaus; etc.

Along valley-bottoms, whether the valleys are in plains, plateaus or mountains, narrow alluvial plains are often developed. So, too, about the borders of lakes, whether in plains, plateaus or mountains, low, flat lacustrine plains of limited extent are made, either as the result of deposition in the lake or as the result of the lowering of its level or as the result of both. Lacustrine and alluvial plains are minor^ secondary features in relief forms of the first order. Small plains are also developed in other ways. Along streams and lakes or along the ocean terraces are often developed. They represent other minor topographic forms developed in plains, plateaus or mountains.

Between highlands and lowlands there are

always slopes. The slopes between mountains and plateaus are parts of the mountains and plateaus, respectively. So, too the slopes between the surface of a plateau and the bottom of a valley cut in it are parts both of the plateau and of the valley. Yet slopes constitute a somewhat distinct class of topographic forms. If slopes are very steep, and especially if they are steep and high, they are called cliffs Cliffs occur along sea and lake shores as well as along valleys. It is within the province of physiography to explain how these secondary and minor features, as alluvial plains, lacustrine plains terraces, slopes, cliffs etc. arose and how their individual peculiarities of form were developed.

Another topographic form is the basin. Basins, like most topographic types, are of various sorts. Some are large, some small. They may affect the surfaces of plains or of plateaus, or they may occur among mountains. Some have outlets, and some have not. Those which have not may give rise to lakes, ponds etc. Ponds and lakes may have outlets, but below the level of the outlet is a basin which has no outlet, else there would be no lake or pond. Other so-called basins are enclosed on three sides and open on the fourth, or at least at some one point. It is customary to speak of the great depression between the Appalachian Mountains on the east, the Rockies on the west and the Height of Land on the north as the Mississippi basin, although it is by no means completely inclosed by high land. It is the function of physiography to define the various types of basins and to explain their modes of origin and their individual characteristics.

CONFIGURATION OF THE SEA-BOTTOM The configuration of the sea-bottom also falls within the province of physiography; and, while the sea-bottom is less familiar than the land, its general features are known. It is known, for example, that there are great areas of the sea-bottom elevated above their surroundings. Such areas are comparable, in some sense, to the plateaus on land. There are great areas where the ocean-bed is depressed, relatively to the areas just referred to. Such areas are comparable to the plains of the land. There are other depressions in the ocean-bed, more limited in area, which are comparable to basins on the land, though some of them are much larger, both in area and depth, than the inclosed basins on the land. Many parts of the ocean-basin have been affected by vul-canism. Volcanic peaks are, on the whole, more notable features of the ocean-bottom than of the land. In its fundamental features or features of the first order, therefore, the ocean-bed has some likeness to the land. But gradational agencies, especially degradational agencies, are hardly operative on the ocean-bottom, except in very shallow water. Since it is degradational agencies which produce the most notable secondary features of land-surfaces, and since these agencies are little operative in the sea, the sea-bottom, in general, is without the hills, the ridges, the mountain-peaks due to erosion, the valleys, valley-plains and terraces which abound on the land. These physiographic forms are sometimes found on the sea-bottom, and the areas where they occur are thought to have been land at one time, though now submerged. On the other hand, the shallow sea-bottom is affected by bars, reefs etc., built by waves and shore-currents, and by coral polyps. Reefs are not formed on land, and only occur there, when an area of sea-bottom is elevated to the estate of land.

References

Davis' Physical Geography; Geikie's Earth Sculpture; Physiography of the United States; Jukes-Brown's Physical Geology; much of dynamic geology in any textbook on geology; those portions of textbooks on physical geography which deal with the land and with the configuration of the ocean-beds; all treatises on rivers, lakes, glaciers, as Russell's Volcanoes; Judd's Physiographic Atlases of the U. S. Geological Survey; etc.

R. D. Salisbury.

Phys′iol′ogy. Anatomy shows us that animals and plants are wonderfully constructed. But after we understand their architecture and even their minute structure, the questions remain: What are all the organs and tissues for, and what takes place within the parts that are actually alive? Physiology attempts to answer questions of this nature. It therefore stands in contrast with anatomy and is supplementary to it. The activities of the body are varied and depend on life for their manifestation — they may be called vital activities. Physiology embraces a study of them all. This subject began to attract the attention of the ancient medical men, who wished to fathom the activities of the body in order to heal it in disease. But it is so difficult a thing to begin to comprehend the activities of life, that even the simpler relationships were imperfectly understood, and they resorted to mystical explanations. They spoke of spirits and humors in the body as causing the various changes. The arteries were supposed to carry air, the veins only blood, and nothing was known of the circulation. In these early days, also, anatomy, physiology and medicine were united into a poorly digested mass of facts and fancies. This state of affairs lasted till the 16th century, and then the awakening came through the efforts of gifted men endued with the spirit of independent investigation. The advances made depended upon the work or leadership of these men, and certain periods of especial importance should be pointed out.

First is the period of Harvey (1578-1657). In his time the old idea of spirits and humors was giving way, but there was much vagueness about the relationships and activities of the body. He helped to illuminate the subject by showing a connection between arteries and veins and demonstrating the circulation of the blood. Harvey (q. v.) did not see the blood passing through the capillaries from arteries to veins, but his reasoning was unassailable that such a connection must exist and that the blood makes a complete circulation. He gave this conclusion in his medical lectures as early as 1619, but did not publish his views until 1628. It was reserved for Malpighi, in 1661, actually to see the circulation through capillaries under the microscope, and for Leeuwenhoek, in 1669 and later years, greatly to extend the observations. The next great period was marked by the work of Haller (1708-77), who made physiology an independent subject. It had previously been united with anatomy and medicine; he made it a subject to be studied for its own sake. The period that marks the beginning of modern physiology came next, and was due to the genius and force of Johannes Müller (q. v.). He studied physiology so broadly that he made it comparative. He used every means at his command — experiment, observations on simpler animals, the microsope, the discoveries in physics, chemistry and psychology. He (1801-58) made physiology systematic and broadly comparative. Not only did he do important work himself, but as professor of physiology at Berlin he trained many talented young men, among whom were Ludwig (1816-95), Du Bois-Raymond (1818-96) and Helmholtz (q. v.). Thus his influence reached to the present time and affected recent physiology. With these distinguished German physiologists should be mentioned Claud Bernard (1813-78) of France and Sir Michael Foster of England (1816-).

Physiology has broadened and deepened until it includes the vital activities of the entire animal and vegetable worlds. Every action or function dependent upon life is embraced by it. These are so varied that they must be reduced to order and system, and, when that has been done, we observe that all the functions may be grouped under three great headings: Those concerned with nutrition; those connected with relation; and those pertaining to reproduction. Nutrition embraces every activity concerned in nourishing the body. It must include a discussion of the blood, its structure, circulation and changes; the heart and the influences which affect it; the digestive system, the kinds of food, the nature of digestion, the absorption of the food into the circulation, the secretion of substances like the digestive juices and other forms of secretions in the body; and the action of the liver, pancreas and similar organs. Respiration is connected with nutrition, because the oxygen brought in is used in all processes of the body, and the removal of the carbon dioxide (CO₂) is an aid to nutrition. One must, therefore, learn all about the breathing organs and the nature of the exchanges between the blood, the air and the tissues. The living protoplasm of the body is continually undergoing disintegration; it breaks into carbon dioxide, water and nitrogenous compounds. In order that nutrition may be effectively carried on, these waste-products must be removed. This topic includes the action of the kidneys, the lungs and the skin. The varied chemical changes in assimilating the food and the reverse set of changes resulting in the liberation of energy must be considered under nutrition.

Another great division of physiology deals with the means by which an animal or plant is brought into proper relation with its surroundings. This in higher animals includes the action of the nervous system and sense-organs as well as control of the nervous system over the organs. The muscles and organs of protection are also involved in bringing about a harmonious relation between surroundings and the animal. Finally, reproduction refers to the preservation of the race, and is more for the benefit of the race, generally speaking, than for the individual.

A study of all these varied activities is physiology. Reference must be made to text-books and manuals for further consideration. It is a common fault with our elementary physiologies to go too much into the discussion of the effects of alcohol and narcotics. The importance of such a discussion is unquestioned, but the facts of physiology and hygiene should stand out in unrivaled prominence. Among the smaller texts Huxley's Lessons in Elementary Physiology is the most lucid statement of the facts of physiology yet presented. Among the best books of greater extent may be mentioned Foster's Textbook of Physiology; Stewart's Manual of Physiology; Kirke's Handbook of Physiology; Howell's American Textbook of Physiology; Verworn's General Physiology; Martin's The Human Body; and Hall's Textbook of Physiology. It goes without saying that the most recent edition of each must be used. See Blood, Circulation, Heart, Liver, Muscle, Nerves, Respiration.

Wm. A. Locy.

Physiology (of plants), that branch of science which treats of the activities of living beings. These essentially are the same in plants as in animals, but often are simpler. Plant physiology is concerned with the action of the plant body as a whole, the part which each of its organs takes and the ways in which they are adjusted to one another and the external world. (See Ecology.) The work of a particular part or organ is called its function. The important general functions of plants are absorbtion; water transfer; transpiration; nutrition (in the narrower sense) including digestion, photosynthesis and assimilation; secretion; respiration; growth; and movement. (See these topics and Irritability.) In the higher plants the root is an absorbing organ for water, mineral salts and such organic matter as is soluble in water; the root, stem and leaves are furnished with strands of tissues along which water and foods can travel readily; the leaves and the surface of the stem, at least when young, are organs of absorption and evolution of the gases carbon dioxide and oxygen; they also lose water by evaporation; and they are most important as organs for making carbohydrate foods. All these functions, however, may go on in a single cell of one of the simplest plants.

Pian′ofor′te, a stringed musical instrument played by keys, developed out of the clavichord and harpsichord. It differs from these chiefly in the introduction of hammers with which to put the strings in vibration, connected with the keys by a mechanism that enables the player to modify the intensity of the sound at will. It is this peculiarity to which the name is due, piano being the Italian for soft and forte for loud. The strings are stretched across a compound frame of wood and metal, composed of bars, rods and strengtheners of various kinds. This framework includes a wooden sound-board. The mechanism by which hammers are connected with the keys is called the action of the instrument. The duration of a note is regulated by the damper. This consists of a piece of leather, resting on the top of the string and connected with the back part of the key by a vertical wire. When a key is pressed down, its damper is raised off the string so as to allow the sound to be clear and open; but when the finger is taken from the key, the damper wire falls immediately, and the damper presses down on the string, muffling and stopping the vibration. One of the pedals is called the loud, the other the soft pedal. Great difference of detail exists in the “actions” of different makes, but all have the same essential parts. See Hopkins' Musical Instruments.

Piaster (pĭ-ăs′tẽr), “a plaster” in the Latin; in the Romance languages “anything spread out,” “a plate,” “a coin.” The word is applied to an old Spanish coin, worth not quite $1.00 of United States money. It was divided into eight reals, and hence was called “a piece of eight.” The Italian piaster is an imitation of and nearly equal to the Spanish piaster in value.

PIBROCH

1488

PICTS

The Turkish piaster Is worth about four cents of United States money.

Pibroch (pe'brok), a form of bagpipe music, generally of a warlike character. The rhythm is irregular and difficult for a stranger to follow; but, played by a good piper, it has a powerful effect.

Picayune (pWd-unf), a name derived from the Carib language and used in Louisiana for a small coin worth six and one quarter cents, current in the United States before 1857 and known by various names in different states — fourpence, fippence, fip and sixpence.

Pick'ens, Francis Wilkinson, an American statesman and diplomatist and a governor of South Carolina, was born at Togadoo, S. C., in 1805, and died at Edgefield, S. C., in 1869. He was a lawyer of prominence, and in 1832 became a member of the legislature. He was a member of Congress for ten years, and in 1857 was appointed minister to Russia. He was an ardent advocate of nullification, extreme democracy and state-sovereignty. As governor of South Carolina in 1861 he demanded the surrender of all Federal property within the state; and he caused the erection of the batteries from which was fired the first shot against Fort Sumter.

Pick'erel. See PIKE.

Pick'ering, Edward Charles, a distinguished American astronomer, born at Boston, July 19, 1846; educated at Harvard, where he graduated from Lawrence Scientific School in 1865. He immediately accepted an instructorship in physics at Massachusetts Institute of Technology, where he founded the first physical laboratory in America. There he remained until 1877, when he went to Harvard as professor of astronomy and director of the observatory, a position which he has filled with increasing distinction during a quarter of a century. Professor Pickering's most original work perhaps is in stellar photometry and stellar spectroscopy. But the conception and skillful direction of the many lines of work carried on at Harvard Observatory, as well as the building up of the observatory itself, must always remain a great service to science and a monument to Professor Pickering. He is a member of the National Academy of Science, the author of several important volumes and the editor of Harvard Annals, an invaluable series of astronomical reports.

Pick'ett, George Edward, an American soldier who won worldwide distinction in the Confederate service at Gettysburg, where he made one of the most gallant and desperate charges ever known in the history of war. He was born at Richmond, Va., Jan. 25, 1825, and graduated at West Point in time to enter the army as a second-lieutenant during the War with Mexico. He was brevetted first-lieutenant and afterwards

GENERAL PICKETT

captain for conspicuous bravery in Mexico. He served for the most part on the frontier between 1848 and 1861. At the outbreak of the Civil War he resigned from the army of the United States and entered the Confederate service as a colonel. He became a major-general in 1862. He was engaged in several desperate battles under Lee, but won special distinc-tion as the leader of the assaulting column, July 3, 1863, upon which hung th@ fate of the Confederacy. The point reached by his troops in this charge, and from which they were at last driven back, is marked upon the field by a granite monument. In the campaign of 1864-5 he made the final stand at Five Forks, and he prevented the capture of Petersburg by General Butler. At the close of the war he returned to Richmond and engaged in life-insurance, dying at N rfolk, Va., July 30, 1875.

Pick'wick Papers. This novel by Dickens was published in 1837, and at once made its author universally popular. Its principal character is Mr. Pickwick, whose adventures are largely humorous, although pathos also is involved. The most absurd as well as the principal episode is the breach-of-promise suit Drought against the hero at the instigation of rascally pettifoggers. It results in his incarceration in Fleet Prison for a considerable period, until he is persuaded to pay the unjust judgment. The adventures are woven into a plot involving several tales of love. The book aims at satirizing many aspects of English life, especially the petty lawyers and the prison-system. It abounds in clever characterizations, the most notable of which, aside from that of Pickwick, probably is that of Sam Weller.

Picts, a people, who from A. D. 296 to 844 inhabited eastern Scotland from the Forth to the Pentland Firth. Sometimes we find them called by the name Cruthnig. The first mention of them in Roman aimals is in connection with campaigns in Britain in 296 and 306 A. D. The first mention of the Scots is made in connection with their being united, with the Picts in harassing the Romans in 360 A. D. The Pictish kingdom was overthrown about 850, when the Scots became the predominant race. It is undecided what was the language the Picts spoke, though the prevailing opinion is that they were a Celtic race. See Skene's Chronicles of the Picts and Scots.

PIGEONS.

1.....Middle-billed Tumbler. 2.....-German Drum. 8......-Anatolian Turbit. 4.....Roman, r» iVtuutf Lark.

«] -Antwerp Carrier. 7—Strasser. 8 - Lynx, 9.........Nun, 10 Maltese, 11 -Cai-ru'i,

\Z~ Lung-billtid Tumbler. IS—Faotail. U—English Pouter* Pied'mont, the northwest of Italy, comprising the modern provinces of Turin, Alessandria, Cuneo and Novara. Area, 11,336 square miles; population 3,423,854. Much of its land is reclaimed by irrigation and made highly productive. The system of irrigation is well-nigh perfect. It is watered by the upper Po. The country is rich in Waldensian memories.

Piedmont Region, The, is a part of the Atlantic coastal plain of the United States, lying further inland than the low and level area nearest the ocean, but continuous with it. There is a real geographical difference between the Piedmont region and the coastal plain proper, for the former is higher, more rugged and geologically older and based upon harder strata of rock. There is a falls' line between the Piedmont region and the coastal plain proper, where most of the coastal rivers, in leaving the harder for the softer strata of rock, have worn a series of rapids and precipitous falls. The Piedmont region in the south is from two to three hundred miles broad; but in the north, especially in New York, very narrow.

FRANKLIN PIERCE

Pierce, Franklin, fourteenth president of the United States, was born in New Hampshire, Nov. 23, 1804. He early came into political prominence in his native state. In 1837 he was elected to the United States senate, of which he was the youngest member. In 1842 he resigned his seat. He was a Democrat of the Jacksonian school and a zealous advocate for the admission of Texas, with or without slavery. He volunteered as a private in the Mexican War, but President Polk made him a brigadier-general. In 1852 he received the Democratic nomination for the presidency and obtained the electoral votes of all the states, save Vermont, Massachusetts, Tennessee and Kentucky. During his administration the Missouri Compromise was repealed by the passage of the Kansas-Nebraska bill. At the close of his administration he spent three years in Europe; returned home to Concord; but took no part in politics. He died at Concord, N. H., Oct. 8, 1869.

Piero dei Franchesi. See Francesca, Piero della.

Pierre, So. Dak., the capital of the state and county-seat of Hughes County, is situated near the site of old Port Pierre, about the center of South Dakota. The fort was founded in 1829, and was named after one of its early fur traders. It has good public schools, Pierre University (Presbyterian) and a governmental, Indian industrial school. Pierre is on the Missouri River and has the service of the Chicago and Northwestern Railroad. Population 3,656.

Pierre'pont, Edwards, American lawyer and diplomat, was born at New Haven, Conn., in 1817; and died at New York, March 6, 1892. As attorney-general of the United States he conducted the trial of Surratt, an accomplice in the murder of President Lincoln. In 1876-8 he was minister to England. As a jurist he had a wide reputation, and European governments were influenced by his writings upon international law.

Pig. See Swine.

PASSENGER-PIGEON

Pigeon (pĭ′jŭn), a name for members of the dove family. There are about 300 species all over the world, being most abundant in the East Indies. Only two are found in the Eastern United States — the wild pigeon and the turtledove. The wild or passenger-pigeon is exceedingly rare. It formerly was very abundant, perching in the forests in such numbers as to break limbs of trees and covering a large territory in their daily flight in search of food. During migration they flew in such large flocks that it would sometimes require days for them to pass a particular point. They were nearly exterminated by wholesale slaughter. The bird is about 17 inches long, with large wings and a long, pointed tail. The male is bluish above, purple brownish-red below, more violet behind, with a black bill and yellow feet. It depended largely upon acorns and beechnuts for food, with occasional feasts on grain and berries. The turtle or mourning dove still is quite common. The long, soft, mournful note of the male during the nesting season is known to nearly everyone in the United States. It is a smaller bird than the passenger pigeon, being about 11¾ inches long. The upper parts are olive grayish brown, the neck iridescent, the breast pinkish and the belly buff; the outer tail-feathers are tipped with white. They nest in isolated pairs, and two broods are produced a year. There is a large number of domestic pigeons, all descended from a wild form generally believed to be the blue rock-pigeon; but there is reason to doubt this. Pigeon-breeding has been engaged in throughout Europe and eastern countries for centuries. It is a favorite pastime in the United States. A great range of variation has been produced by breeding. Some of the more conspicuous varieties are the fan-tail with large spreading tail; the pouter, with inflated breast; the tumbler; carrier; trumpeter; barb; and jacobin. Darwin made use of pigeons in observing the changes produced in animals under domestication, through the influence of artificial selection. The breed which is called the carrier pigeon, or the homing pigeon, is employed for carrying messages. There is no real distinction between doves and pigeons.

Pig′ments, the color materials of painting. It is necessary to distinguish these from dyeing colors. Pigments are insoluble, and, mixed in oil or water or other liquid, are used for painting. Dye-stuffs are held in solution as tinctorial substances. A pigment must have covering power, that is, it must cover and conceal with an opaque covering the surface on which it is spread. When dry, it must have durability; must resist the air. It should also dry quickly. Pigments for artistic work need to be prepared with more care and of better material, if possible, than pigments for mechanical purposes. A house can be repainted, but a madonna cannot be. Artists' pigments are ground to a finer powder than ordinary paints.

Pike, a ravenous fresh-water fish, with long slender body, broad snout and large mouth. There are five species of the pike family. One inhabits the fresh waters of both continents; the other four are American species. The muskallunge, attaining a length of eight feet, is the finest and largest of the pikes. It is found in the Great Lake region and, occasionally, in the Ohio valley. The smaller varieties are commonly called pickerel in the United States. All rank high as food.

Pike's Peak, a peak of the Rocky Mountains, 65 miles south of Denver in Colorado, discovered by Captain (afterwards General) Z. M. Pike in 1806. It is 14,134 feet high. A railway from Manitou to the top, nine miles in length, was constructed in 1891.

Pi′late, Pon′tius, the Roman procurator of Judæa, who, after his most solemn assertions of the innocence of Christ, yielded to the demands of His accusers and gave Him up to be crucified. There are quite a number of traditions as to Pilate's end: He committed suicide; he was beheaded by Nero; he embraced Christianity. In the Ethiopic church he is celebrated as a saint. One legend tells how his body was thrown into the Tiber, making an overflow, another that the body was carried to Mount Pilatus and there sunk securely in the deep pool on its top. But here again it made storms arise, and every year the devil on Good Friday lifts him out of the pool and places him on the judgment-seat, where he washes his hands anew. In the Greek church Pilate's wife has been canonized as a saint. His era is the first half of the 1st century.

Pile-Driver, a machine for driving piles. The ordinary form consists of a heavy iron weight which can be raised vertically from 10 to 40 feet between upright guides and then be released to fall on the pile beneath. The common weight of the ram is from 1,000 to 2,000 pounds, but weights of 4,000 pounds and over are occasionally used. It usually is lifted by a wire-rope, which is wound on a drum revolved by a small steam-engine, the ram being released when the desired height is reached. In the Vulcan-Nasmyth steam pile-driver a hammer is attached directly to the rod of a piston which works in a vertical steam cylinder. The admission of the steam to the cylinder causes reciprocating hammering, the number and character of the blows being regulated by an adjustable valve-gear. Another form of pile-driver is the gunpowder pile. In this the explosive force of gunpowder confined in a suitable mortar is used to drive the pile.

Pileus (pī′le-ŭs), the spreading cap-like portion of a mushroom or toadstool. See Basidomycetes.

Pilgrim Fathers, the founders of the first English colony settling in Massachusetts. This colony belonged to a sect of separatists originating in Yorkshire, England, who, previous to sailing for the New World, had spent some time as exiles for religion's sake in Holland. The company, numbering 100 men, women and children, set sail from Plymouth, England, Sept. 6, 1620, bound for Hudson River. But after a long and stormy voyage they were driven on the bleak and desolate shores of Cape Cod. They landed on Dec. 21, 1620, at a place to which they gave the name of Plymouth.(q. v.) A monument to their memory has been erected there. Before landing they drew up and signed a compact of government, which is regarded as the first written constitution we have an historical account of.

Pilgrim's Progress. This famous masterpiece was composed by John Bunyan (1628-88), a tinker of Bedfordshire, England. Having become converted to intense faith in the free-church point of view, he began to preach and was arrested for delivering sermons without a license. He was confined in Bedford Jail for over eleven years (1660-72), and during this period composed Pilgrim's Progress. This is an easily interpreted allegory describing the spiritual experiences of Christian, the pious man, on the way to the heavenly Jerusalem. He passes Neighbors Obstinate and Pliable, Worldly Wiseman, Apollyon, the Valley of the Shadow of Death, the Slough of Despond, Doubting Castle and Giant Despair. The allegory in a simple and yet brilliant way presents the religious notions current among the common people of the time.

Pil′lory, an instrument for the public exposure and punishment of criminals. It consisted of a post and frame fixed on a platform. In the frame, which is attached to the post after the manner of a sign-board, are three holes through which the hands and head of the criminal are thrust, and out of which he cannot draw them. Standing behind the frame, he faces the gazing crowd. The exposure was a chief part of the punishment. At one time it was customary to shave the head wholly or partially. In the laws of Edmund I it was required so to construct the pillory as not to put the body “into peril.” In the earliest pillory punishments they seem to have been confined to offenses not amounting to felony, called misdemeanors, as using deceitful measures and weights, libel, seditious writings. Later on, common scolds, brawlers and others were punished in this way. In the 17th and 18th centuries it came to be used for the punishment of political offenders. It was abolished altogether in Britain in 1837.

Pil′low, Gid′eon John′son, an American soldier, was born in Williamson County, Tenn., June 8, 1806. He graduated at the University of Nashville in 1827, and not long after was admitted to the bar. During the Mexican War he was appointed a brigadier-general of volunteers. He commanded the right wing at Cerro Gordo, where he was wounded. Being promoted for gallantry, he took part at Molino del Rey and Chapultepec, where he was again and more severely wounded. He practiced law in his own state until the beginning of the Civil War, to avert which he had proposed various compromises. But having entered the Confederate service in 1861, he rapidly advanced to the command of a brigade, and took part in the battles of Belmont and Fort Donelson. He was second in command when the latter was taken by the Federal troops, but made his escape. He afterwards served under General Beauregard in the southwest. He died in Lee County, Ark., Oct. 8, 1878.

Pi′lot, a person deputed to take charge of the course of a ship through a particular sea-reach or dangerous channel or out of or into port. He “stands at the wheel” we say. He must know how to manipulate the rudder and must be familiar with the channel. A steamboat neglecting to have a duly licensed pilot for a given port or stretch of water would forfeit its insurance in case of an accident.

Pinck′ney, Charles Cotes′worth, an American statesman, was born at Charleston, S. C., Feb. 25, 1746. He took part in the earliest movements of the Revolution of 1776. In the war he did noble and conspicuous service. He was Washington's aide-de-camp at Brandywine and Germantown. He saw much active service until 1780, when he was taken prisoner at the surrender of Charleston. A member of the convention that framed the constitution of the United States, he introduced the clause forbidding religious tests of qualification for office. In 1796 he was sent as minister to France, but the Directory refused to receive him, and he had to quit the country. War between France and the United States was threatening. The French intimated to Pinckney and his associates that a gift of money from the United States would avert war. Then Pinckney burst out in the famous utterance: “War be it then; millions for defense, but not a cent for tribute.” He was thrice an unsuccessful candidate for the presidency. He died at Charleston, S. C., Aug. 16, 1825.

Pin′dar, the chief lyric poet of Greece, was born about 522 B. C. near Thebes, and died at Argos in 443 B. C. He began his career as a writer of choral odes at 20, and, soon reaching the highest rank, composed odes for men in all parts of the Hellenic world. Wherever he went he was honored and loved for his own sake as well as for his art. States vied with each other in doing him honor. Two conquerors of Thebes, Pausanias the Spartan, during the Peloponnesian War, and Alexander the Great left no other dwelling in Thebes standing than the house in which Pindar had lived. Of most of his poems we have fragments only. The Triumphal Odes, celebrating triumphs in the Olympian, Pythian, Nemean and Isthmian games are entire. Pindar treats the victory not as a mere incident, but as connected with the victor's whole life and history. He loves to dwell on the moral side of it; not merely on the bodily prowess, but on the temperance, love to parents or piety which secured the favor of the gods who granted success. The groundwork of his poetry consists in the legends which form the Greek religious literature.

Pin′dus Mountains, a range extending from north to south through the western part of Greece. At the southern end it attains a height of nearly 8,000 feet. The range connects with a range to the north and the name is sometimes used to cover this also, but originally this name was confined to that portion which separates Thessally from Epirus.

Pine, species of the genus Pinus, the largest genus of the conifers and distributed throughout north temperate regions. They are exceedingly important forest-trees, and are developed in a most magnificent way in our western mountain regions. There are 37 species in the United States, 25 occurring in the west, nine in the Mississippi basin, and seven in New England and the middle, Atlantic states. They are found under widely-varying conditions: down by the sea and up the mountain to the timber-line. The leaves are evergreen. The branches grow in imperfect whorls about a central trunk. The naked flowers appear in early spring, and the fruit is a cone. Wood, turpentine, rosin and tar are the products. The pine is so important a timber-tree that it seems doomed as a tree of the forest. It does not send up shoots, and its seeds soon lose their vitality. Far and wide nut-bearing trees have driven the pines backward from rich lands to the sands. The commonest species in the eastern United States are P. Strobus, the white pine; P. resinosa, the red pine; and P. palustris, the long-leaved or Georgia pine. The pitch-pine, abundant in the eastern pine-barrens, is well-known. In the western mountain region P. ponderosa, the great yellow pine, is one of the most important lumber-trees. P. edulis, the piñon or nut-pine, occurs in southern Colorado and southward. The white pine is a magnificent tree and the most valuable timber-tree of the eastern states. It grows to a height of 80 to 175 feet. The branches, whorled horizontally about the splendid, erect column, are most picturesque. The bluish-green, needle-shaped leaves are arranged along the branches in clusters of fives. The cones are long and slender. Its range is from Newfoundland to Manitoba, along the Alleghenies south to Georgia. The wood is light, soft, straight-grained and takes a fine polish; is used in cabinet-work, in interior finish and for shingles, lumber, masts and spars. The red or Norway pine is a beautiful tree belonging to the north. It is valued for its lumber and grows from 70 to 150 feet high. The long-leaved Georgia, southern or yellow pine is a very important timber-tree. Its wood is of a rich orange-yellow, very ornamental. Much turpentine, resin and tar are obtained from this tree. It rises from too to 120 feet, and is noted for its beautiful foliage. The leaves, from 10 to 15 inches long, grow in thick tufts at the ends of the branches. The yellow pine of the west occasionally attains a height of 230 feet, frequently of 150 feet. It is found from British Columbia to Mexico east to Nebraska and Texas. One of the most important pines in cultivation is the Scotch pine, P. silvestris, the common pine of northern Europe. The Austrian pine, P. Austriaca (P. Laricio), is a fast-growing and massive tree and common in cultivation. See Keeler: Our Native Trees.

Pinero, Sir Arthur Wing, the son of a solicitor, was born in London, May 24, 1855. Like Shakespeare, he was an actor but he left the stage in 1881 and since then has devoted himself entirely to play-writing. He began his stage career in 1874 at the Theatre Royal in Edinburgh. Two years later he went to London on an engagement at the Globe Theatre. Then, for five years, he was a member of the Lyceum Company. He was knighted in 1909.

His first production, to attract general attention, was “The Money Spinner”, which was produced at the St. James's theatre, London, in 1880. His most celebrated play is “The Second Mrs. Tanqueray”, which was first played at the same theatre in 1893. It at once created wide discussion, both because of the art displayed in the work and the nature of the subject, which deals with the sex problem.

In the general opinion of critics it places the author among the very first of living dramatists.

Pine′apple, the fruit of Ananas sativa, a member of the Bromelia family. It is native to tropical America, and has become naturalized in the tropical regions of Asia and Africa. The chief regions of “pine-growing,” as it is called, which supply the markets of the United States, are southern Florida and the various West Indian islands, the Isle of Pines being named from this industry. The so-called fruit consists of a fleshy, cone-like flower-cluster, which includes the axis and bracts and flowers of a whole inflorescence. Numerous cultivated forms have been developed.

Pine Bluff, Ark., county-seat of Jefferson County, is built on a high bluff on the south bank of Arkansas River, about 120 miles from its mouth. It lies 38 miles southeast of Little Rock, and is surrounded by rich agricultural country. It contains iron-works, manufactures cottonseed-oil, flour, bricks and lumber, and ships large quantities of cotton. The city has admirable public schools, a convent, a colored industrial school (R. C.), fine churches and an elegant opera-house. It possesses all the adjuncts of a progressive city: waterworks, electric lights and an electric street-car system. Pine Bluff has river-service for passengers and freight, besides being served by five railroads. Population 15,102.

Pink, the name of a species of the genus Dianthus and extended to the members of the pink family. The common pinks of old gardens are supposed to have descended from D. plumarius, a native of eastern Europe. The sweet-william or bunch-pink is D. barbatus, abundant in all country gardens and a native of Europe. The carnation or clove-pink is D. caryophyllus, which occurs in a great variety of colors, either pure or variegated, and is grown mostly indoors. Some of the wild flowers which belong to this family are also called pinks, as for example, the fire-pink (Silene

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Virginiana), which occurs in woods in early spring and is conspicuous on account of its crimson red petals.

Pins. These simple articles, almost a symbol for a thing of the smallest value, not only are useful, but are a prime necessity. Yet they did not come into use without the help of art and inventive genius. The earliest pins probably were thorns or small bones of fish or other animals. Later there were pins of brass, copper or iron. These were of various forms, and often had gold and ornamental heads. Modern solid-headed pins are made on a machine that was patented by Wright, an American, in 1824. The process is as follows: Wire of suitable sizes is manufactured, mostly of brass, but also of iron or steel. When reeled, the wire is ready for use. A pair of pincers, worked by a machine, draws from a reel of wire a length sufficient to make a pin; its head, which is made at the same time, is straightened by passing through studs. The pin-length is seized by jaws from which a portion of the wire, of which the head is to be made, projects and is exposed to blows from a die-hammer. The pin is then pushed forward twice, each time receiving a blow from the die-hammer. The wire is then cut to the length of the pin. The headed blanks drop into a slot formed by two inclined and bevel-edged bars. The opening between the bars is just large enough to prevent the heads of the pins from falling through, so that the blanks become sustained in a row along the slot. They are then caught between two parts of the machine, which causes them to rotate, and are thus passed in front of the cylinder which acts like a file and points the pins. As many as 160 a minute can be turned out by a single machine. The pins are cleaned of grease and other matter by boiling them in weak beer. They are next coated in tin, and are then brightened by shaking them in a bag or barrel with bran or sawdust. They are papered by machinery, which is as ingenious as the means by which they are made. America uses nearly 150 pins per inhabitant per year, which is the highest average in the world. Pins are exported from the United States over nearly all the world, although needles are largely imported from England.

Pinturicchio (pen't<56~rek'ke-o), an Italian artist whose name means The Little Painter, was born at Perugia in 1454 and died at Siena in 1503. Fresco-painting was his strong point, and he left only a few easel pictures. He decorated the library of Siena cathedral, and the work was so brilliant in conception and execution, for he knew every resource of art and was a master of ornament, that it is his finest fresco. He was a link between Perugino and Raphael. His real name was Bernardino de Betto Bagio, and he was a man of high character.

Pipe'fish, a long, slender fish with a straight, tubular snout, like a pipestem. It is common on the Atlantic coast from Newfoundland south. The male has a brood-pouch under the tail, in which the eggs are developed and the youngest protected for some time after they are hatched. Several other species are found in different seas.

Piq'ua, O., a city of Miami County, on Miami River and the Miami and Erie Canal, in a rich agricultural section, 27 miles north of Dayton and 72 west of Columbus. It is served by a traction-line from Toledo to Cincinnati and by the Pennsylvania and the Cincinnati, Hamilton and Dayton railway. It has good water-power from the Miami and Erie Canal. Its industries include large strawboard, hosiery and woolen mills, furniture, carriage, stove and bent wood works; the American School Desk Co.'s factory is here, and also a corrugated-iron works. Piqua has fine schools, churches, banks and a public library of 15,000 volumes. Population 13,388.

Pi'racy is robbery on the high seas, and, although considered a crime at the present time by all nations, formerly the sea-rover was as much a pirate as a trader. The Phoenicians combined piracy with lawful seafaring enterprise. In the days of Homer piracy was considered a respectable, even a dignified, calling, and the Greeks had a natural genius for it. Cilicia was long the headquarters for Mediterranean piracy, until in 67 B. C. Ppmpey made his memorable expedition against the pirates with great naval and military forces. The Norse vikings were the terror of western coasts and waters from the 8th to the i ith Christian centuries. The Hanseatic League was formed for mutual defense against the Baltic and other pirates. Later the Moslem rovers scourged the Mediterranean, commingling naval war on a large scale with peddling, thieving and stealing people as slaves. Algiers was a stronghold of pirates till well into the ipth century, and in the iyth century the English Channel swarmed with Algerine pirates. In 1635 these corsairs entered Cork Harbor, and carried off a boat with eight fishermen, to be sold as slaves in Algiers. The buccaneers preyed mainly on the Spanish commerce with the Spanish-American colonies. Captain Kidd, (q. v.), who was sent out against pirates in 1696 by a private company in London,was found to be playing the game of pirate himself, was arrested and tried for piracy and murder, found guilty and hanged on May 23, 1701. The original of Scott's Pirate was John Gow, who, though bold and successful under the guise of friendship, was proved to be a great villain, and with nine of his men was executed. So late as 1864 five men were hanged in London for murder and piracy. The African slave-trade was not considered piracy by the law of nations, though the United States and Great

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Britain declared it to be such by statute, and after i84c Austria, Prussia and Russia made the same declaration. The home of professional piracy is now confined to the Malay Peninsula.

Piraeus (pi-re'us}, the harbor of Athens, Greece; Athens being about five miles from the sea. As far back as the time of Pericles long walls joined the port with Athens. These were built for protection, so that between them travel to and from the port and the city would be undisturbed. A few traces of the wall remain. The fortification being destroyed by Sulla 86 B. C., the town fell into decay. Since 1834 the modern town has grown up, for more than half the export-trade of Greece passes through Piraeus. It has a large trade. Population 70,000.

Pisa (pe'za), one of the oldest cities of Italy and once the rival of Venice and Genoa. It is on the Arno, 50 miles west of Florence and 13 northeast of Leghorn. It is a city of fine buildings, foremost among which is the cathedral, built in the nth century, with a noble dome, fine paintings by Cim-abue, Andrea del Sarto and others and beautiful, marble altars. Near by stands the Leaning Tower, a splendid specimen of southern Romanesque architecture but peculiar in that it deviates about 14 feet from the perpendicular. This is not due to original design. The tower seems to have begun to heel to one side when the third story was completed: the architects deliberately accepted the conditions and adhered to the inclining position, but diminished the slope of the-upper stories so as to keep the center of gravity well within the walls. The tower is 180 feet in height, and consists of eight stories divided by rows of columns, the last, which contains the bells, being smaller in diameter than the others. The tower was built in 1174 and succeeding years, but the eighth story was not completed until the middle of the i4th century. Ancient Pisa was an Etruscan city, which became subject to Rome in the 2d century B. C. Early in the nth century Pisa had developed into a powerful republic, possessing a formidable fleet and much territory along the Tyrrhenian Sea. Through the nth century Pisa was at its height of prosperity, and the splendid monuments of art _ adorning it belong to this period. Population 65,212. The industries are confined to silks, cottons, ribbons and the working of coral and alabaster. Pisa also is a province with an area of 1,179 square miles and a population of 342,144.

Pisidia (pi-sid'i-d), in ancient geography, was a country in Asia Minor, north of Pam-phylia, which separated it from the Mediterranean, and south of Phrygia. It was a rugged and mountainous district comprising some of the loftiest portions of the great range of Taurus. In early times it was occupied by wild, lawless races of mountaineers

PISTIL (a) style; (&)

stigma; ovary hidden in flower.

who never were entirely subjugated by the various powers ruling Asia Minor at different times. The first mention of Pisidians in history occurs in the Anabasis of Xenophon. Later they resisted the march of Alexander the Great. In Strabo's time they had passed quietly under the Roman power. Pisidia once contained considerable towns, the ruins of which have been brought to light recently by Arundell, Hamilton and Daniell. The most remarkable ruins are those of Termes-sus, Cremna, Sagalussus, Sedge, a large and wealthy city in Strabo's time, and Antioch which Paul visited,

Pis'til (in plants), a term of somewhat indefinite application, inasmuch as it may consist of one carpel or of several carpels organized together. In the former case the pistil is spoken of as simple, in the latter case as compound. In other words, any organization of carpels which appears as a single organ with one ovary is a pistil. See FLOWER.

Pis'tol. See REVOLVER. Pit'cairn' Island, a solitary island in the Pacific between Australia and South America, area two square miles. It owes its celebrity to its being the dwelling place of the Mutineers of the Bounty. The British ship Bounty was sent out by the government for the purpose of carrying breadfruit trees to the West Indies to be transplanted. A short time after leaving Tahiti 25 of the crew mutinied. -The commander > Bligh, with a number of his officers, was set adrift in a launch. He made out to reach the Dutch East Indies. The mutineers at first went back to Tahiti. In 1790 nine of these mutineers, with six Tahitian men and a dozen women, sailed to and settled on Pitcairn Island. At the end of ten years John Adams was left alone with eight or nine women and several children, and from them the present inhabitants are descended. Adams set about the Christian education of the company. Nothing was known of them till 1808, when the American ship Topaz, Captain Folger, discovered them. Not until 1814 did a British vessel touch at the island. In 1839 Pitcairn was annexed to Britain. In 1856 nearly 200 were transferred to Norfolk Island, but a number returned. The people (who chiefly are Seventh-Day Adventists) are virtuous and contented, and choose their own pastor and magistrate. The island raises coffee, arrowroot, yams, bananas, pineapples, sweet potatoes, pumpkins, oranges and melons; it also contains about 200 wild goats. Population 169.

Pitch. In mechanics pitch is used to denote the distance between two successive threads on a screw In acoustics pitch is

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used to denote one of the three distinguishing features of any musical tone. The pitch of a note depends upon the number of vibrations per second which produce this note; and the numerical value of the pitch is the number of vibrations per second or the frequency of the note. See ACOUSTICS. Pitch, a black resinous substance, is obtained from the tar of coal or of wood by the application of heat at low temperatures, the heat driving out the volatile naphtha or spirit. In the production of pitch the fire must be withdrawn before the heat of the distilling vessel reaches the point at which coke or carbon will be produced. Pitch is also obtained from natural petroleum, bone-tar and stearine-residues. The last two are valued by varnish and turpentine makers. Wood-tar pitch is much used to protect timber from insects and the weather; coal-tar pitch is used in the manufacture of black varnishes for coating iron and for making lampblack. In Persia it is prepared from goat and sheep dung. Bur-

fundy pitch, produced in "inland, is a drug much used as a medicine.

Pit'cher=PIants, those whose leaves form, tubes or urns of various shapes, which contain water and to which insects are attracted and drowned. The common pitcher-plants of the temperate regions are a species of Sarracenia, which grow in swampy areas. In the tropics striking illustrations of pitcher-plants are found among the various species of Nepenthes and their allies, in which urns of various shapes are developed swinging at the ends of tendrils. See CARNIVOROUS PLANTS.]

Pith, a term which has both a general and a special application. In the former case it applies to any loose, spongy tissue in plants. Strictly, however, it means the spongy tissue within the vascular cylinder of gymnosperms and dicotyledons. The tissue is parenchyma (which see), and it is apt to die so early, that the pith of ordinary experience is a dead and empty mass of cells. The pith of ordinary commercial use is obtained from the elder.

Pit'man, Sir Isaac, a British educator and the father of modern shorthand, was born at Tiowbridge, Wiltshire, England, Jan. 4, 1813. He was educated at the Normal College near his home, and himself became the master of a school at Barton-on-Humber in 1832. He published his first studies of the art which was to make him famous in a volume entitled Stenographic Shorthand (1837). A few years latei he put forth Phonography or Writing by Sound. Such was the general acceptance

PITCHER-PLANT

his system found, that little remains of earlier attempts. In 1843 he founded the Phonetic Society, and soon after began the publication of the weekly Phonetic Journal, He issued many textbooks upon phonography, and his system was introduced into the United States in 1847. He was knighted in 1894, and died on Jan. 22, 1897. His brother, Ben Pitman, settled at Cincinnati about 1850, and made that city the headquarters for the publication of works similar to those printed by Isaac in the Old World. His system differs slightly from that of his brother, but essentially they are one. See SHORTHAND. Pitt, William, Earl of Chatham, sometimes styled Pitt the Elder, one of the greatest of all English orators and statesmen was born at Westminster, Nov. 15, 1708. He was educated at Eton and Oxford, and entered Parliament in 1.735, where he took sides against the king and led the young Whigs, known as patriots, in opposition to Walpole, then at the head of affairs. Though deprived of his commission, his influence increased rapidly both in and out of the house of commons. Walpole was driven from power in 1742, and, though the king hated Pitt, he found it necessary to permit his return to the government service. Some wealthy admirers of Pitt's oratory and patriotism left him large sums of money, and on the dismissal of Fox Pitt became secretary of state. While Pitt was in power, success returned to the British arms. French armies were defeated everywhere by Britain and her allies — in India Africa, Canada, on the Rhine — and the few ships left her were driven from almost every sea. But Pitt, the prime mover of all these brilliant victories, found himself compelled to resign on the accession of George III, when the British government adopted a vacillating policy. But he did not cease to take an interest in public affairs. He spoke strongly against the arbitrary and harsh policy of the government toward the American colonies, and warmly urged an amicable settlement of the difficulties. But when, America having entered into treaty with France, it was proposed by the duke of Richmond to remove the ministers and make peace on any terms, Chatham, sick though he was, came to the house of lords. In a powerful address he protested against the implied prostration of Britain before the throne of the Bourbons, and declared that war, with whatever issue, would be preferable to the proposed terms of peace. This address secured a majority against the motion, and the war was continued. But it was the orator's last effort, for his physical powers suddenly failed, he fell back into the arms of his friends, and was carried from the house by his son William, who in less than five years was himself prime minister. Chatham died in Kent, May 11, 1778. He was buried in Westminster Abbey, where a statue was erected to his memory. See his Life by F. Thackeray.

Pitt, William, second son of the great Earl of Chatham, was born on May 28, 1759, in Kent, while his father was in the house of commons and the most honored man in England. Owing to ill-health he was educated at home, his father carefully superintending his studies and training him in those lines which would best fit him for a brilliant career in Parliament. To this was due that wonderful command of choice and accurate English which Pitt possessed above all the orators of his time. He entered Parliament, Jan. 23, 1781, and his first speech made a great impression. Burke said: “He is not a chip of the old block, but the old block itself.” A member of the opposition said to Fox: “Pitt will be one of the first men in Parliament.” Fox replied: “He already is the first.” Although but 23 and poor, he refused the office of vice-treasurer of Ireland, saying he would accept nothing but a seat in the cabinet. Although this speech caused wide-eyed astonishment at the time, three months later he was in the cabinet as chancellor of the exchequer. A year later George III urged him to act as premier and choose his associates, but with rare judgment and self-restraint Pitt declined the dazzling offer. However, on the speedy fall of the coalition ministry then formed, with Fox and North as joint secretaries of state, the king arbitrarily appointed Pitt chancellor of the exchequer and first lord of the treasury. The best judges in the political world then considered his position hopeless, and foretold a briefer ministry than even the last three had been. He was opposed by North, Sheridan and Burke, who united against him, but his dauntless courage, skill and firmness won, and on March 25, 1784, Parliament was dissolved and Pitt, only 25 years of age, was elected minister. He was one of England's most powerful premiers, and held sway for 20 years. (See England and France). He died at Putney, Jan. 23, 1806, and was buried beside his father in Westminster Abbey. See biography by Lord Stanhope and Pitt, in the Twelve English Statesmen Series, by Lord Rosebery.

Pitts′burg, Kans., a city and railroad center in Crawford County, southeastern Kansas, 50 miles east of Independence. It is on the Atchison, Topeka, and Santa Fé; Kansas City Southern; Missouri Pacific; and St. Louis and San Francisco railroads. In the vicinity are rich coal-lands and mineral deposits, coal-mines and zinc-works. There are good schools, churches, banks and a state normal school in which manual training is a prominent feature. Population 14,755.

Pittsburgh, Pa. The junction of two navigable rivers, to form a third, with its outlet in a distant ocean, gave to the site of the ninth city in population of the United States, commercial advantages from the earliest days of settlement beyond the Alleghenies. Enormous manufacturing industries and trade originating in the locality were forced upon it by the lavish hand with which nature had deeply underlaid the surrounding hills with iron, coal, petroleum and natural gas.

The site of Pittsburgh is one of the greatest beauty with its bluff-bordered streams and distantly circling heights. No smoke marred this sylvan paradise when the French came from Canada, in 1753, and built Ft. Duquesne on The Point. At the close of the French and Indian War the British rebuilt the demolished fortress and named it Fort Pitt in honor of the Earl of Chatham, their brilliant statesman and orator. To the south Mount Washington and Duquesne Heights look down on the city to remind us that here the father of our country was initiated in the business of war; and 12 miles away, on the field of a famous defeat to British arms, stands the steel-manufacturing town of Braddock. With the opening of Kentucky and Ohio to settlement Pittsburgh rapidly developed into a frontier trading-post. It was incorporated as a village in 1794 and as a city in 1816. In 1845, when it had a population of 30,000, it was destroyed by fire.

A bird's-eye view of Pittsburgh with its population of over 500,000, would show the Allegheny, the Monongahela and the Ohio as a Y-shaped channel outlined for 20 miles on both banks with columns of smoke from factory-chimneys by day and with flame by night. Mills, docks, warehouses and tall, grimy tenements are wedged in the upper triangle, and have burst across the numerously bridged currents into Allegheny and other cities. The dense mass is gridironed with railroads, and the streams are covered with processions of funereal iron-ore and coal barges. Factory operatives and many others must live under this perpetual pall of the Smoky City, but all who can escape it at night have fled to the eastern hills, where they have set beautiful residences, public buildings, churches and schools along broad boulevards and landscape parks. Pittsburgh has money to pay for anything it wants. The steel-industry alone is said to have made 2,000 millionaires. Coal, coke, oil-fields and gas-wells have made others. There are locomotive and car-works, glass-furnaces and brass-foundries, paper-mills, salt and chemical works, plants for making electrical supplies and for many by-products of the steel-mills and oil-refineries to swell the streams of gold that flow into the city's coffers. Pittsburgh is traversed by, or has direct connection with, every important railroad from the Atlantic seaboard to the West. Its railway tonnage is said to exceed that of any other city in the world, and its river tonnage, among cities in the United States, is exceeded probably only by that of Detroit.

Because of its great wealth Pittsburgh is noted for its 200 costly churches, its fine public buildings, its 70 public schools and numerous private schools and academies. Carnegie Institute of Technology, built by Andrew Carnegie and endowed with $10,000,000, is one of the finest institutions of the kind in the world. Nearly one seventh of the population is enrolled in the public schools and more than 1,000 teachers are employed, an unusually high percentage among American cities. Little could be done to beautify the crowded manufacturing district, but as the city is only eight miles long and is but five wide at its eastern extremity, the suburbs and parks on the surrounding hills are easily accessible. Schenley Park is one of the largest parks in the country and Highland Park one of the most beautiful. In 1908 Allegheny was consolidated with Pittsburgh giving Greater Pittsburgh a population of 533,905. See Allegheny.

Pitts′field, Mass., a city of western Massachusetts, county-seat of Berkshire County, named in honor of William Pitt, was settled in 1743. Situated on a plateau 1,100 feet in altitude and surrounded by Hoosac and Taconic Mountains, Pittsfield possesses natural beauties rarely surpassed. Its great beauty has attracted people of wealth and taste who have built costly residences here. It contains a marble courthouse, a handsome athenæum, a costly museum and beautiful schoolhouses. Its manufactures include woolen goods, silk, cotton goods, shoes, electrical goods and paper mills. Population 32,121.

Pitt′ston, Pa., city, in Luzerne County, on Susquehanna River and in the center of the rich anthracite region of northeastern Pennsylvania. Its manufactories, which have the advantage of abundant and cheap fuel, include machine-shops, planing, knitting, flour and paper-mills, stove and steel-range works, terra-cotta works, ladies' underwear factory, dye-works and pressed-brick works. West Pittston, across the river and connected with it, is the chief residential part of the city. It also has electric connection with Nanticoke, Plymouth and Wilkes-Barre, and has the service of four railroads. Pittston was named after William Pitt, and was settled about 1770. Population 16,267.

Pi′us V, originally named Michele Ghislieri, was born of poor parents at Bosco near Milan in 1504, and at 14 entered the Dominican order. His merits were recognized by Pope Paul IV, who appointed him bishop of Sutri and Nepi in 1556 and cardinal in the following year. Being chosen pope in 1566, he labored to restore discipline and morality at Rome, prohibited bullfights and other objectionable amusements, and regulated the taverns. He also zealously maintained the inquisition, and sought to suppress heresy with a strong hand wherever it was found. But the most important event of his pontificate was the expedition which he organized in connection with Spain and Venice against the Turks, which resulted in the great naval victory of Lepanto, Oct. 7, 1571. He died in the following year, and was canonized by Clement XI in 1712.

Pius VI, originally named Giovanni Angelo Braschi, was born at Cesena, Italy, Dec. 27, 1717, and on the death of Clement XIII in 1775 he was chosen to the pontificate. His administration was enlightened and judicious, and to him Rome owed many substantial improvements. Soon after his accession, however, he was involved in serious conflict with Emperor Joseph of Austria and with Leopold of Tuscany, by whom he was deprived of a considerable portion of his supremacy. Soon afterwards came the French Revolution and the confiscation of all church-property in France. In 1797 peace was secured by the treaty of Tolentino; but new causes of contention soon arose, and in 1798 the French marched upon Rome and took possession of the castle of St. Angelo. Pius was called upon to renounce his temporal sovereignty, and on his refusal to do so was imprisoned and carried to Florence. On the threatened advance of the Austro-Russian army in the following year he was transferred to Grenoble and thence to Valence on the Rhône, where he died, Aug. 29, 1799.

Pius VII, originally Gregorio Luigi Barnaba, was born at Cesena, Italy, Aug. 14, 1742, and became pope in 1800. Rome, which had been occupied by the French for two years, was restored to the papal authority, and next year the French troops were withdrawn from the city. In 1804 Napoleon compelled Pius to come to Paris to consecrate him as emperor. He was well-received, but in less than six months after his return to Rome French troops seized Ancona, and in 1809 General Miollis entered Rome and took possession of the Castle of St. Angelo. The usurpation was consummated in the following year by a decree annexing Rome and all the papal territory to the French empire. After the downfall of Napoleon the Congress of Vienna restored his territories, and on May 24, 1814, he re-entered Rome, the remainder of his reign being devoted to wise measures of internal administration. Throughout his life Pius was a model of gentleness, benevolence and Christian charity. He died on August 20, 1823.

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PIZARRO

Pius IX, originally Giovanni Maria Mas-tai-Ferretti, was born at Sinigaglia, Italy, May 13, 1792, In 1840 he became a cardinal, and on the death of Gregory XVI in 1846 was elected to succeed him. He avowedly was the leader of the reform party. In March, 1848, he published his scheme for the government of the papal states by means of two chambers, one nominated by the pope and one chosen by .the people. But the revolutionary fever of 1848 spread too fast for a reforming pope, and on Nov. 15 his minister was murdered in broad daylight. A few days later the pope himself escaped to Gaeta, from which he issued a remonstrance to the various sovereigns of Europe. In April, 1849, a French expedition was sent to Civita Vecchia, and in July General Oudi-not took possession of Rome, Pius himself returning and resuming his authority in the following year. After this his policy was the reverse of what it had been, and to the end of his life he continued an unyielding conservative. By a bull, issued in 1854, he decreed the Immaculate Conception of the Virgin Mary as a doctrine of the church. But the most important event of his pontificate was the Vatican Council, at which bishops from all parts of the world assembled in December, 1869, and continued in session until July, 1870. This council first formally proclaimed the doctrine of the papal infallibility whenever the head of the church issues a decree on a subject of faith and morals to the universal church. For several years previous the pope's temporal authority had been maintained only by French bayonets. When the garrison at Rome was withdrawn, on the outbreak of the war with Germany in 1870, the soldiers of Victor Emmanuel entered Rome, and for the remainder of his days the pope lived a voluntary prisoner within the Vatican, only his spiritual power remaining. He died at Rome, February 7, 1878, and was succeeded by Leo XIII.

Pius X, originally named Giuseppe Sarto, was born of humble parents at Riese, Italy, on June 2, 1835. He pursued his elementary studies at Castel Franco near Venice, and was later enabled to continue h i s higher education elsewhere. He was consecrated to the priesthood at 23; and became vicar - general of Treviso in 1875; bishop of Mantua

in 1884; and cardinal in 1893. Shortly afterward he was made Patriarch of Venice, and on .Aug. 4, 1903, he was elected pope. Free from ambition and filled with a passion for souls, he has a gift for organization and is full of zeal. His schools and his work for societies made him known throughout Italy. He is ardent for missions and preaching. His pontificate has been marked by his abolition of the veto of Austria, France and Spain on the election of the pope; by his stanch advocacy of the Gregorian chant and opposition to secular music in the services of the church; and by the separation of church and state in France.

Pizar'ro, Francis'co, the conqueror of Peru, was the illegitimate son of a Spanish colonel of infantry, and was born about 1478. He never learned to read and write, but entered the army at an early age and served under Gonsalvo di Cordova, the Great Captain, in Italy. He also was one of Balboa's party that discovered the Pacific Ocean, and soon after this became a resident of the Isthmus of Panama, on the Pacific coast. From this point, in connection with Diego de Almagro, another old soldier, he started on an expedition for the conquest of Peru (q. v.) in 15 2 6. But not being strong enough to land and form a settlement, Almagro was sent back to Panama for re-enforcements, while Pizarro and part of the force remained on an island. But the governor of Panama refused to give further support to the enterprise, and sent vessels to bring back Pizarro and his men. The latter refused to return, and, drawing a line on the sand, called upon all the men who wished to remain with him and share in the success of his enterprise to come over to his side. Thirteen men crossed the line, but the others returned. Soon after this the governor was induced to send one vessel to Pizarro, with which he explored the coast of Peru and collected information concerning the empire of the Incas. He then returned, and soon afterwards proceeded to Spain, where he applied for authority to undertake the conquest of Peru. On July 26, 1529, a commission was given him for his enterprise, with the title of captain-general, while Almagro received the title of marshal. Pizarro sailed from San Lucar on January 19, and from Panama the following year, with three vessels, containing less than 200 men and about 40 horses. Almagro was to follow with re-enforcements. Landing at Tumbez, the Spaniards commenced the march inland in May, 1532, and in November entered the city of Cajamarca. The Inca Atahualpa, being on his wa,y to Cuzco, the capital of his empire, was captured and put to death by Pizarro, who first extorted eight million dollars for his ransom. Pizarro then marched to Cuzco, and set up the young

PIUS X

POPE BENEDICT XV

Pope Pius X died on August 20, 1914, and was succeeded by Cardinal Giacomo della Chiesa, Archbishop of Bologna, who was elected on September 3 as Benedict XV. He is of noble blood, the son of the Marchese della Chiesa and was born at Pegli, Italy, November 21, 1854. His first public utterance was an appeal to Roman Catholics throughout the world and to the governments of Europe to pray and work for the return of peace. Inca, Manco, as nominal sovereign of the empire, being careful to retain the real power in his own hands. In 1535 he founded Lima as the capital of his new government. Two or three years later a fierce quarrel arose between Pizarro and Almagro, the latter claiming that he was the lawful governor of Cuzco and that he had not received his full share of the honors and riches to which he was entitled. This contest almost assumed the proportions of a civil war, and resulted in Almagro being captured and beheaded by Pizarro. But Almagro’s followers, driven to desperation by the manner in which they were treated by Pizarro, formed a conspiracy against him. On June 26, 1541, he was attacked in his house and assassinated, his body being buried in the cathedral by stealth and at night.

Plague, a term applied during the middle ages to all fatal epidemics but now restricted to a contagious fever prevailing at certain times and places epidemically. The general symptoms resemble those of other fevers — shivering, rise of temperature, pain in the head, back, limbs etc. Bleeding from the lungs, though rare in recent epidemics, was formerly regarded as a characteristic symptom of the “black death” in its most virulent form. About the second or third day the most distinctive features of the disease present themselves. These consist of glandular swellings, usually in the neck, armpits or groins; these generally break and lead to prolonged suppuration. The cause of the epidemic has never been determined. It certainly is very infectious, and the infection may be conveyed by clothes, bedding etc. as well as by direct contact with the sick. It also is the most destructive of all epidemics. The black death of 1348–50 is believed to have destroyed more than half the population of Europe. The first extensive outbreak of this disease was in the 6th century of our era, and devastated the whole Roman empire. It is supposed to have originated in Lower Egypt; but from this time frequent epidemics occurred in Europe. The last outbreak in England was in 1665, and was called the Great Plague of London. Nearly 100,000 persons perished in London alone during its ravages. Since the end of the 17th century it has only twice visited western Europe; in 1704–14 it spread from Russia and Hungary as far as Sweden, Denmark and Bavaria; and in 1720–22, being introduced into Marseilles from. Syria, it destroyed almost half the population there and spread through Provence. The last cases known in Egypt were in 1844, and since that date it has occurred more than once in Arabia, Tripoli, Persia, Mesopotamia and Russia.

Plain′field, N. J., an attractive city in Union County on the Central Railroad of New Jersey, ten miles north of New Brunswick and 25 west of New York City. It has many charming residences and is tastefully laid out. It has a public library, art-gallery, Muhlenberg Hospital and other civic and philanthropic institutions, and its school-system fits pupils for college entrance. Its manufatures embrace silks, gloves, safes, dynamos and other machines and a machine-tools works, together with large establishments for the manufacture of printing-presses. Population 20,550.

Plane′tree, the oriental plane, a native of Greece and the east, was planted by the Greeks and Romans as an ornamental tree, and for centuries the youth of Greece assembled under its shade in the groves of academies to receive lessons in philosophy. It is still planted for shade and ornament in the south of Europe, and there are no finer trees in London than its plane.

Plan′ets. If one observes the sky night after night he finds that practically all the stars maintain their relative positions; but there are certain heavenly bodies, besides the sun and moon, which form a striking exception to this general rule. There were five of these bodies known to the ancients who called them planets, the Greek word for wanderers. To these five bodies had been given the names of Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter and Saturn. Copernicus, by placing the sun at the center of the solar system, showed that Tellus, the earth, also belongs in this group. On March 13, 1781, Sir William Herschel discovered what he at first thought was a comet, but which within a year proved to be another planet, the one we now call Uranus, On September 23, 1846, an eighth planet, Neptune, was found by Galle at Berlin almost exactly at the point in the heavens where it had been predicted by Leverrier (q. v.) in France and by Adams in England, a discovery which is justly celebrated as the most brilliant achievement of modern astronomy. Besides these, nearly 500 smaller planets called asteroids were discovered during the 19th century. See Astronomy.

The following table, giving the distances and periods of the various planets, is taken from Young’s General Astronomy:

Name	Distance from Sun	Siderial Period
Mercury	0.387	88 days
Venus	0.723	224.7 “
Earth	1.000	365¼ “
Mars	1.523	687 “
Mean Asteroid	2.650	3 to 8 years
Jupiter	5.202	11.9 years
Saturn	9.539	29.5 “
Uranus	19.183	84.0 “
Neptune	30.054	164.8 “

It will be observed that the distance from the sun is given in terms of the distance of the earth as a unit. The relative sizes of the planets and the sun are well-shown in the accompanying figure:

For the laws which describe the motion of the planets about the sun see Kepler and Newton.

Concerning the individual planets it may be noted that

1. Mercury, which is nearest the sun, has the least diameter, the least mass and the greatest density of all the planets. Its density may be remembered from the fact that it is almost exactly that of the metal mercury, being 12½ times that of water. The diameter of this planet is about 3,000 miles. No satellite has been discovered for Mercury.

2. Venus has a diameter of 7,700 miles and a density 0.86 that of Earth, so that in size, surface, gravity she is not very different from our own planet. No satellite is known.

3. Earth. See Earth.

4. Mars has a diameter of 4,200 miles, and a density which is 0.73 that of Earth, so that bodies at the surface of Mars weigh only 0.38 what they would at the surface of Earth. Two satellites of this planet were discovered by Professor Hall at Washington in August, 1877. These two moons, Deimos and Phobos, are exceedingly minute, being only 7 and 5 miles, respectively, in diameter. The surface of Mars is covered with interesting markings.

5. Asteroids. See Asteroids.

6. Jupiter, the largest of all planets, has a diameter of 86,500 miles; and, while its density is only one quarter that of Earth, its mass is 316 times as great, so that a body on the surface of Jupiter weighs more than twice as much as the same body at the surface of Earth. The surface of this planet exhibits some very characteristic markings, especially belts and spots, which lead to the opinion that Jupiter is a body of very high temperature compared with the other planets. He has five satellites, four discovered by Galileo and one by Barnard in 1892 at Lick Observatory.

7. Saturn, with its system of rings, is conceded to be one of the most superb objects in the heavens. Although the diameter of the planet is only 73,000 miles, the outer ring is no less than 168,000 miles across. Two rings had been known for a long while, but the third ring was discovered by Bond in 1850. Pierce and Maxwell have proved that these rings are made up of discrete particles and that the rings, therefore, are neither solid nor liquid. See Maxwell, James Clerk. Saturn has eight satellites discovered between 1665 and 1848.

8. Uranus, discovered by the older Herschel, has a diameter of 32,000 miles; but its density is only about one fifth that of Earth, so that, notwithstanding its enormous bulk, surface gravity there is only 0.90 that of Earth. It is accompanied by four satellites.

9. Neptune, the most distant member of the family has a diameter of 35,000 miles and a density one fifth that of Earth. At an average distance of 2,800 millions of miles from the sun, it is absolutely invisible at Earth, except by the aid of a telescope. It has one satellite, discovered almost immediately after the discovery of the planet itself. See Miss Clerke’s History of Astronomy and Chambers’ Descriptive and Practical Astronomy.

Plant′-Breeding, a term covering several processes of improving varieties of plants or of producing new varieties. It is done by selection or by crossing. Its purpose may be to produce fruits that are better flavored, to produce larger yields or to produce plants that are more resistant to disease, to pests or unfavorable climatic conditions. Selection is simply using such material for “seed” as to a greater or less degree shows the desired trait; or it is

PLANTAGENET

1501

•PLATJBA

saving those seed-grown plants possessing said traits. The effect of failure to follow the first alternative is seen in the decreasing yield from year to year from selling all the large potatoes of a crop and planting only small ones. Potato-tubers are underground stems, and not "seeds," botanically speaking. Most true seeds tend to reproduce the traits possessed by their parents, i. e., they tend to "breed true. By selection we get early maturing corn that ripens in the Dakotas to the Canadian boundary^ and wheat that needs but 15 inches of rainfall. Crossing means that the pollen-dust of one flower has been applied to the pistil or seed-bearing organ of another of a different variety. The result is a hybrid, which may or may not have desirable characteristics, and may or may not be able to transmit any of the desirable characteristics, as can be told only by observing later generations. Cross-breeding always implies selection, but not the reverse. Crossing induces a variation, selection fixes the type. But variations occur without any crossing that we are aware of. Desirable varieties of most fruit-trees, which must be propagated by other means than the seed, appeared >e know not how. Thus the seedless grange was "discovered" in Brazil, the Delaware grape in central Ohio. See Holden's Corn-Culture; Bailey's Plant-Breeding; and U. S. Dept. of Agriculture reports.

Plantag'enet, a family that in 1154, In the person of Henry II, succeeded to the throne of England on the extinction of the Norman dynasty in the male line, and reigned till 1485, when the battle of Bos-worth gave the crown to the house of Tudor. The name comes from planta genista, the broom-plant, which the Angevin ancestor of the family wore in his cap. The Plan-tagenet kings were Henry II, Richard I, John, Henry III, Edward I, Edward II, Edward III, Richard II, Henry IV, Henry V, Henry VI, Edward IV, Edward V and Richard III. See articles under these names. For the great struggle between rival branches of the Plantagenets see ROSES, WARS OF THE.

Plan'tain, species of Plantago, a genus containing more than 200 species, which are distributed everywhere, at least twenty plantains being known in North America. All have a common habit, a rosette-like cluster of basal leaves from the center of which rises a stalk bearing the more or less elongated dense spike of inconspicuous flowers. In the common plantain this spike is often said to resemble a rat's tail. Far the most common species is P. major, the dooryard plantain, which has received numerous other common names. Perhaps the next commonest form is P. lanceolata, known as ribwort, ribgrass and scores of old names.

Plasmo'dium, the naked, protoplasmic body of the slime-molds. It consists of

numerous, fused, naked cells and, like a huge amoeba, has the power of motion. See MYXOMYCETES.

Piaster of Par'is is gypsum (q. v.) prepared for use in the arts, the name arising from the fact that the most famous beds of gypsum in the world are those of Mont-martre near Paris and that the product is shipped from that city. The plaster itself is merely gypsum, the natural bihydrated calcium sulphate, heated and ground fine. In this condition it constitutes a powder devoid of moisture, which has been driven off by heat. But upon the reapplication of water to the mass it rapidly assumes solid form again. This property renders the material invaluable to the designer, who can fill his molds with the moist, soft mass, and presently take it out, set in the form given by the matrix. Dentists use this material in taking casts of the jaws; decorators use it in ornamenting ceilings and cornices; sculptors use it in making the final model from which the marble statue is copied by skilled workmen who make that a profession.

Plastering, the process of covering walls, masonry or woodwork with material which is soft and plastic when applied, but becomes hard when dry. For interior walls a first coat of mortar, made of sand and lime mixed with hair, is generally used. The lime is slaked and, with the other material, is placed in a box. Water is added, and the whole is stirred and kneaded with a hoe until thoroughly mixed and a smooth mortar secured. A thick coat of this mortar is spread with a trowel on the surface of lath or screen, and is pressed in spreading in order that the mortar will be forced through the screen and clinch and hold as the material hardens. This first coat is roughened, to hold the second coat, which is applied when the first is thoroughly dry. The second coat is lighter, containing little or no sand or hair. It is planed smooth ^with a wooden board called a float. The third or setting coat is pure lime, or may be of plasterer's putty and plaster of pans. Cement, staff or stucco is used for exterior walls. See CEMENT.

Plata, Rio de la (re'5 day Id pld'ta), a great estuary in South America between Uruguay and the Argentine Republic. It is about 150 miles long and at Buenos Aires 28 miles wide, but 140 miles broad at its mouth. The northern shore is steep and high, the southern low and flat. The branches of the Plata drain about 1,600,000 square miles, and the outflow, seen for 60 miles out at sea, is about 52,000,000 cubic feet per minute, a volume second only to that of the Kongo. See Sir Horace Humbold's The Great Silver River. See PARANA and PARAGUAY.

Platsea (pld-te'd), a city in Boeotia, on the Borders of Attica and at the foot of Mount Cithaeron, six miles from Thebes. In

PLATEAU

1502

PLATO

480 B. C. it was destroyed by the Persians because the inhabitants had taken part with Athens in the battle of Marathon; but in the following year it was the scene of the victory won by Pausanias and Aristides over the Persians under Mardonius. During the third year of the Peloponnesian War, 429 B. C., it was besieged by a Theban and Spartan force, and heroically defended itself for more than two years until it was starved into surrender, the garrison of 200 men being put to the sword and the city razed to the ground. Such of the Plataeans as escaped were hospitably received at Athens, and by the treaty of Antalcidas, forty years later, their children were allowed to go back and rebuild their city; they were again driven out by the Thebans; and half a century elapsed before the victory of Philip at Chaeronea enabled the Plataeans finally to return to their homes.

Pla'teau, Joseph Antoine Ferdinand, a distinguished Belgian physicist, was born at Brussels in 1801, and died at Ghent in 1883. He was educated at the University of Liege, and was professor of physics at the University of Ghent from 1835 to 1883. His most important contributions to science are along the two wholly different lines of subjective visual phenomena and capillarity. It was while engaged in the former study that he looked directly at the midday sun for 20 seconds in order that he might study its after-effects. One of these after-effects was that he became permanently blind in 1843. His work on surface-tension was carried on, under his direction, by his wife, son and distinguished son-in-law, Van der Mensbrug-ghe. These researches are contained in his Isiatics of Liquids, which has been translated into English by Smithsonian Institution. A more beautiful and ingenious series of experiments on surface-tension than those here described it would be impossible to find. Plateau is to be remembered also as the inventor of the thaumatrope.

Plat'ing consists in covering the surface of a metal with a coating of a more valuable metal. Many metals and alloys are plated with gold or silver, and iron is frequently nickel-plated. The operation is performed most frequently by placing the object to be plated in an appropriate solution and causing the metal to be deposited by means of an electric current. In silver-plating a bath of silver cyanide dissolved in potassium cyanide is commonly used, while an anode of silver supplies this metal as fast as it is deposited upon the objects forming the cathode. Copper and zinc may be deposited at the same time upon iron objects, thus producing brass plating. In most cases electroplated articles require rubbing or burnishing in order that they may acquire a brilliant luster. H. L. WELLS.

Plat'inum is one of the "noble metals." It is generally found in small granules mixed

with other metals, but sometimes in masses as large as a pigeon's egg. In rare cases pieces have been found weighing ten or more pounds. It is chiefly obtained from the Ural Mountains, although it has been found in Brazil, Colombia, California, Canada and Borneo. Platinum is the heaviest form of matter known, except iridium and osmium. It expands less by heat than any other metal, and, as it expands to about the same extent as glass, it is easy to fuse a wire of this metal into glass without causing the latter to break subsequently. Electric currents are thus led into the ordinary incandescent-light bulbs. On account of its power of resisting the action of acids it is of great service in chemical experiments, platinum capsules, crucibles and similar articles being found in every laboratory. Platinum is exceedingly malleable and ductile, but it melts only when subjected to the very highest heat. On this account it is in great demand for electrical as well as chemical apparatus, and the recent introduction of the platinotype process in photography has advanced the price very materially.

Pla'to, a distinguished Grecian philosopher, was born during the early years of the Peloponnesian War, most probably about 425 B. C. A vast amount of detail has come to us respecting his life, but most of it is very doubtful. According to one account Plato was born in Athens; according to another in ^Egina. He came of an aristocratic family, his father boasting descent from the last king of Athens. In his youth Plato indulged in poetry, but, when he compared his compositions with Homer, he abandoned the muse entirely. Having, when about twenty, become acquainted with Socrates (q. v.), he devoted himself to philosophy. His companionship with Socrates continued until the death of the latter. Plato made no attempt to enter on a political career. He went to Megara, where he remained some time, and afterward visited Cyrene, Egypt, Italy and Sicily. On his way back to Athens Plato is said to have been sold as a slave in .^Egina, but to have been ransomed by Anniceris of Cyrene. On his return to Athens about 388 B. C., he began to teach in the Academy, a grove in the western suburb of the city. There he gathered disciples, teaching mainly by questions and conversations, after the manner of Socrates. He twice visited Sicily, where he spent some time. Returning to Athens, he continued teaching and writing until 347 B. C., when he died.

The distinctive principles of the teaching of Socrates are the inductive method and the effort to get general definitions. When people spoke about persons or acts as just or beautiful, Socrates would ask: "What is justice?" "What is beauty?" and would test every definition by applying it to particular instances, content to remove misconception

PLATTDEtiTSCH

and error even when complete truth could not be obtained. This is the course pursued by Plato in his earlier dialogues; but in the Thec&tetus the Platonic Socrates asks the profounder question : " What is knowledge ? It is not sensation, for sensation alone gives us no objective certainty. It is not opinion, for opinion may or may not be true. A man only knows when he sees the reasons or causes of things; when he perceives facts as links in the chain of cause and effect. Man can only know that he knows, when he deals with that which is permanent and universal. What then is this? Plato's answer is found in his theory of ideas or forms. These are not material objects, but the everlasting essences, to be apprehended only by the reason; they are the substances of which material things are but the shadow. In our time they are generally described as mental concepts. The form of a statue is not the marble out of which it is carved, but the thought or conception of the sculptor, of which the marble is only an expression. In his Republic Plato elaborates his theory of knowledge and gives an illustration of it by picturing a majority of mankind as prisoners in a subterranean cavern chained with their backs to a fire, looking at the shadows thrown by it on the rocky wall and mistaking them for realities. The turning around of these prisoners to the light, their toilsome ascent up the steep slope to the mouth of the cave, the gradual training of their eyes to see the real things in the upper world and then finally looking up to the sun itself all represent the education of the philosopher. Education is turning around the eye of the soul to the light. Learning, according to the Meno and Ph&-drus, is recollecting; the soul in a previous existence has beheld the ideas or forms; and knowledge is possible because the mind does not acquire something alien to it but recovers what is its own.

Philosophy to Plato was not mere intellectual speculation, but a habit of mind and a manner of living. The highest of the ideas in his, view was the good. While he does not accept the theory that pleasure is the good, neither does he agree with the cynics that all pleasure is evil. Pleasures are good or bad, high or low, according to the part of the soul to which they belong Plato accepts without proof the popular distinction of four cardinal virtues: wisdom, the virtue of reason; courage, the virtue of the spirited element; temperance (i. e., moderation, self-control in general), the virtue of the lower parts in their relation to the higher; and justice, the virtue of the whole soul.

In Plato's Timceus the cosmos or order of the universe is the "one only begotten image of God," its father and creator. The Creator, being good, wished to make the world as nearly like Himself as possible; but

no created or visible thing can be perfect. The material out of which the world was formed introduced evil into it. So also the Creator could not make the world eternal like Himself, and He therefore created time> "the moving image of eternity." See Professor Jowett's translation of Plato. The doctrine of immortality is the main subject of the Ph&do, and as the soul, according to Plato's philosophy, had an existence before the body, it cannot be affected by the death and dissolution of the body.

Platt'deutsch' (pldkt doitsh) or Low German, the direct descendant of Old Saxon, is spoken to-day in different dialects by the peasantry of northern Germany from the Rhine to Pomerania. Low German softens the consonants, but avoids the deep sibilants of high German as spoken in the south, and has simple grammatical rules. It is very appropriate in the mouths of the people who use it, their chief characteristics being a childlike good nature and sturdy honesty. Klaus Groth, Fritz Reuter (q.v.) and other writers have given it a high literary standing.

Platte (or Nebras'ka), a tributary of Missouri River, is formed by the junction of its northern and southern forks in western Nebraska. These forks, which rise among the Rocky Mountains in Colorado, are 800 and 500 miles long, respectively, but neither is navigable. The general direction of the Platte is eastward in a wide, shallow stream over the plains of Nebraska till it reaches the Missouri after a winding course of over 400 miles. With its forks it drains 300,000 square miles of territory, but is not navigable.

Plaits'burg, N. Y., a village and the county-seat of Clinton County, is famous for two naval battles of the War of 1812, in the latter of which the American flotilla was completely victorious. The village is situated upon Lake Champlain, and is the port of entry of the Champlain customs-district. It thus is an important center of trade with Canada. Plattsburg is a garrison town, a summer resort and the seat of manufactures in iron, wood, wool, flour and sewing machines. Population 11,138.

Plautus (plaw'tus), Titus Maccius*, the chief comedian of Rome, was born about 254 B. C. in Sarsina, a village in Umbria. We have no positive knowledge as to his early life and education, but it is probable that he came to Rome at an early age and there acquired his mastery of the most idiomatic Latin. At Rome he found employment in connection with the stage, and made money enough to set up in business for himself in the way of foreign trade. He, however, failed in business and returned to Rome in such poverty that he was compelled to earn his livelihood by turning a handmill, work usually performed by slaves. While engaged in this occupation, he wrote three plays,

PLAYFAIR

1504

PLEROME

which proved so successful that from that time he was the favorite dramatist of his day. His plays were very popular, not only with the common people, but with the educated classes, and were acted in the time of Emperor Diocletian, five centuries later. The scenes of his comedies are always laid in Athens or in some other Greek town; but his Greek characters speak and act like Romans. Shakspere himself is not more careless about inconsistencies of this kind. The charm of Plautus lies in his genuine humor and grasp of character. He goes to the depths of human nature, and delights his readers to-day as truly as when he made the Roman theaters ring with applause or as when Jerome solaced himself in his cell by reading the well-loved comedies. Shakspere has imitated the plot of the Mencechmi, entirely recasting it in his Comedy of Errors. He died in 184 B. C. See Roman Poets of the Republic by Sellar.

Play'fair, Lyon, formerly known as Sir Lyon Playfair, an English chemist and statesman, was born in India, May 21, 1818, but educated at St. Andrews University, Scotland. He early became interested in chemistry, to which he devoted himself assiduously, going to Germany in 1838 to study under Baron Liebig. He served ten years as professor of chemistry in the University of Edinburgh, and in 1868 he was elected to Parliament to serve for the Universities of St. Andrews and Edinburgh, holding a seat for 17 years. He was postmaster-general, deputy speaker of the house and vice-president of the council at various periods. He was lord-in-waiting to the queen and counsel to the Prince of Wales. In 1883 he was made a K.C.B. In 1885 he was president of the Association for the Advancement of Science. He was raised to the peerage as Baron Playfair of St. Andrews in 1892. He was the author of works upon his chosen profession and edited an edition of Liebig's Chemistry in Its Application to Agriculture and Physiology. He died at London, May 29, 1898.

Play'grounds have originated in large cities, as London and New York, through the need of providing open spaces where the young may exercise freely yet under the necessary supervision. In London they developed from the movement in favor of parks for the people. London has 17,876 acres of parks; and, in addition, every public school has a playground attached. The movement in favor of open-air playgrounds for both men and boys was taken up in London by the Metropolitan Public Gardens Association; and afterwards by the London County Council. There are public gymnasia in all the parks, except the royal ones. In each playground there is a caretaker in uniform.

In New York playgrounds are established

for systematic sports during two months of the school vacation. In 1902 no playgrounds were thus organized, some in schoolgrounds, others on schoolhouse roofs, others again on piers or in parks. The afternoon sports in a summer playground are inaugurated perhaps by a grand march and one or two patriotic songs. Then the time is spent either in gymnastic drill or in free play. The little children play their kindergarten games. There are intervals for rest, during which music is played, a song sung or a story told. There are those who prefer to continue the manual occupations of the morning vacation school; and these give their attention to painting, weaving, modelling and the like. Some of the boys have little plots in which to raise vegetables. The swimming-pool is a valuable adjunct to the school's playground. The evening roof-gardens, with their fresh air and brass bands or, at least, pianos, supplement the function of the afternoon playgrounds. Small parks and playgrounds are provided also in Chicago and other large cities. See, also, VACATION SCHOOLS.

Plays. See DRAMA.

Pleiades (ple'ya-dez), The, in Greek mythology, were, according to the most general account, the seven daughters of Atlas and Pleione. According to some accounts they committed suicide from grief, either at the death of their sisters, the Hyades, or at the fate of Atlas, their father; according to others they were companions of Diana, and, when pursued by Orion, were rescued from him by the gods translating them to the sky; all authorities, however, agree that after their death or translation they were transformed into stars. Their names are Electra, Maia, Taygeta, Alcyone, Calaeno, Sterope and Merope. The group of the Pleiades, called the Seven Stars, is placed on the shoulders of Taurus, the second sign of the zodiac, and with the pole-star and the twins, Castor and Pollux, forms the three angular points of a triangle.

Ple'rome (in plants). At the growing tip of a stem or a root the great regions are organized in embryonic form. Both in stems and roots there are three such regions. On the outside is dermatogen (which see), which gives rise to the epidermis; within the dermatogen is the periblem (which see), which gives rise to the cortex; within the periblem and forming the central axis of the stem or root is the plerome, which gives rise in the mature stem or root to what is known as the stele, in which the woody bundles arise. A longitudinal section of an ordinary root or dicotyledonous stem will reveal these three great regions. Of course the pith which exists within the woody cylinder of the stem is a part of the stele.

SALMON JUMPING FALLS.—Photographed by Dr. R. T. Morris

CARIBOU SWIMMING.—Photographed From Canoe Distant Fifteen Feet

OTTER

Courtesy of Doubleday, Page & Co.

PORCUPINE

OPOSSUM

PRAIRIE DOG

MUSKRAT

GOPHER

WEASEL

WOODCHUCK OR GROUND HOG

MOLE

SKUNK CROSSING A STREAM

CHIPMUNK

RACCOON

SQUIRREL

MINK

RED FOX

COYOTE

Courtesy of Doubleday, Page & Co.

DEER TAKEN BY FLASHLIGHT

↑ The company pays interest on the construction bonds, puts aside a certain amount annually to take up the bonds and pays the city all profits in excess of stated dividends.
↑ In addition to the provinces and the departments of Mindanao and Sulu.

[1] The company pays interest on the construction bonds, puts aside a certain amount annually to take up the bonds and pays the city all profits in excess of stated dividends.

[2] In addition to the provinces and the departments of Mindanao and Sulu.

[1]

[2]

The New Student's Reference Work/Nature-Study with the Camera

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